Credit reports are an important investment of international managers to make. Although sometimes costly, offering payment terms to new international customers without conducting the appropriate due diligence can be much more costly in the long run. Assessing the type of credit reports to obtain and the necessary data to evaluate with help justify this cost.
Unit Objective [edit]
The goal of this material is to introduce you to the cost of credit reports used when extending appropriate payment terms to international customers. This information will also provide you with an understanding of the value of information provided in a credit report. By the end of this unit you will be able to
identify the cost of credit reports.
identify the value of the information contained in the credit report.
Unit Outline [edit]
Introduction
Credit Report Assessment Factors
Credit Report Assessment Factors [edit]
Before international credit managers decide whether a direct or indirect investigation is appropriate, they need to consider five factors: credibility, cost, value, timeliness, and completeness. Neither the direct or indirect approach is the best when all five factors are considered. A credit manager must to assess whether cost and timeliness is more important than completeness or value. As is the case in most business decisions, it depends on the circumstances.
Credibility [edit]
Each report has its own credibility factor, just as the organization has that produces the report. There is no “one, magic” source: a review of the country that the customer is located in could impact the report; the reputation of the firm producing the report often can change, as corporations are bought and sold. Such is true when using either a direct or indirect approach.
Most astute credit people have “favorites” based on their own experience, but there is a danger to this approach, since some firms have a better reputation in some countries than others. Since many of the reporting firms contract with outside organizations to develop the data, there is valid concern as to the accuracy of the information.
Costs [edit]
Costs can be measured two ways. For a direct investigation, the costs associated with a seller’s international credit manager and analysts should be considered. For indirect investigations, costs are typically measured by the fees paid for the report.
Credit reports are sold on a per-investigation basis, which can range from $60 to $200, to a contract basis for so many units for so many dollars over a period of time. It is not uncommon for a Fortune 100 US company to have a budget of $200-$400K per year for contract information on customers as well as countries. In addition, a wise international credit manager knows that his/her bank will provide information on select customers, often at no charge and as a result of the company’s banking relationship. Credit insurers and insurance brokers, even if an international credit manager does not have an insurance policy with a carrier, are an excellent and often free sources of credit data.
Fortunately, there is considerable information available on the Internet to help alleviate costs. The amount of general information on the Internet is truly overwhelming: publications, periodicals and news services. Internet access does make it easy for the international credit manager to check out many more publications than one would normally purchase to read. All the major newspapers are available on the Web. Right now, The Wall Street Journal is one of several charging an access fee. Publications such as Fortune and the Economist are online, as is Business Credit (on the NACM site). Also useful are the financial networks, such as CNN Financial News and Bloomberg. Finally, the Internet offers a fast, efficient, and cost-effective way to communicate with customers. E-mail seems to work faster and has an inherent friendliness that is a bonus in credit management situations. Somehow, people find it easier to compose e-mail messages rather than to use regular mail.
Of course, the global credit executive must ensure that e-mail messages adhere to the same standards as regular letters. A relaxation of style does not mean relaxing credit policy or normal business practices.
Much credit information is confidential in nature. A professional credit executive should take every precaution to maintain standard levels of confidentiality, which may mean using encryption or otherwise securing messages and transmissions. Security also means controlling access to the computer where e-mail messages are stored.
Value [edit]
The credit report is only one source that a credit manager needs to make an intelligent decision about the level of risk. No seller should rely completely on a credit report. If a direct investigation is being considered in full or in part, there are other sources to be considered.
The Customer [edit]
The best starting point for credit information is always with a buyer. Some buyers are more forthcoming with information than other providing credit references, financial information, and details as to the background of the principals, and a history of the business. Many buyers, however, feel that their information (if it is a non-public business) is not to be shared with other businesses. In such situations, an international credit manager needs to be sure to develop a relationship based on trust, so that potential buyers are comfortable releasing critical information.
The Sales Representative [edit]
A seller’s sales representative abroad can also be a valuable source of information. In all probability, a sales agent has had the opportunity to study a buyer’s business practices firsthand. A sales agent is known in the buyer’s trade circle and has access to credit information from local banks and commercial sources. A sales agent can therefore offer a fair picture of the buyer’s financial condition, as well as confidential data that would be difficult to obtain from any other source. Often a sales agent will have a personal relationship with a buyer contact, whether it be the owner or decision-maker. An astute international credit manager recognizes that this relationship needs to be emphasized if he/she wants to obtain information and develop a level of confidence with the customer.
Timeliness [edit]
Timeliness is a particular issue with international credit investigations. In some cases the overseas credit reporting agency can take two weeks or more to respond. In that situation, a direct approach may be timelier and more appropriate.
If you have ever read a magazine article or book on “what’s going on in a particular county,” you know that it is often already outdated material. In the time it took to get the information printed, circumstances may have changed. On-line web resources, daily and weekly newspapers (The Asian Wall Street Journal or The Financial Times) are the often the answer for obtaining truly timely information.
An astute international credit manager utilizes in-country accounting firms, lawyers, and bankers he/she has developed as resources of information. “People on the scene” usually are an excellent source for local news and information.
Completeness [edit]
It is rare that any credit report is truly “complete.” Even if payment information, financial data, and antecedent information exists, an international credit manager may be unsure as to country conditions.
Through experience, networking and education, an international credit manager can conclude what a “good” report is – often determined by the level of risk estimated; the value of the order; the need to meet sales goals; and the nature of the transaction, whether, for example, it is a one-time order or a lasting relationship (Exporting – From Start to Finance, Wells and Dulat-McGraw Hill).
Retrieved from "http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Costs_and_Value_of_Credit/Credit_Report_Assessment_Factors"
jueves, 6 de noviembre de 2008
Effects of Late or Non-payments
Now that you know what a credit report is and what kind of information might be included in a credit report, the next step is to perform a credit risk assessment.
The principles of risk assessment are particularly critical for several reasons; but, most importantly, any extension of credit requires an analysis of a buyer requesting credit and a determination as to the level of risk associated with a buyer’s financial ability to pay a seller according to terms.
The risk, specifically commercial risk, associated with an international market is very important. In dealing with global or international markets, the assessment of a buyer takes on another dimension, the dimension of being international, namely, the risk of selling and getting paid in a timely manner when a buyer is in a country different from a seller.
Commercial risk in international markets refers to the same situation encountered in the domestic market, which is the risk of late/non-payment by a (foreign) buyer or intermediary for goods shipped/services completed, resulting from
insolvency or bankruptcy of a buyer
a buyer’s failure to pay for goods/services per the due date of the agreed upon payment terms
a buyer’s failure or refusal to accept the goods that were shipped or the services provided as agreed in the contract.
When performing a risk assessment, sellers must consider the implication of selling into the international market. A seller must take into account factors that exist in global transactions, but not in domestic sales. Such factors include changes in country governments, currency values, economic and cultural issues. Assessing political and economic risks and cultural issues of other countries is discussed in detail in Module 1, so here you will find highlighted only a few points in context with granting credit.
The bottom line point is that risk assessment is important because the impact of non-payment to a seller may result in cost of money and bad debt events.
Unit Objective [edit]
The goal of this material is to describe for you the commercial risks and the effect of late and/or nonpayment from overseas buyers. By the end of this unit you will be able to
identify commercial risk.
identify the tenets of risk assessment.
identify the “Eight C's" of credit risk assessment for the global seller.
identify the impact of nonpayment.
Unit Outline [edit]
Introduction
Tenets of Risk Assessment
Risk and Reward
"Eight C's" of Credit Risk Assessment for A Global Seller
The 5 "C's" (Domestic and International
The 3 "C's" (International)
Applying the "C's"
Impact of Nonpayment
Identifying Costs
Bad Debt Value
Interest
Opportunity Cost and Alternate Use of Capital
Administrative
Tenets of Risk Assessment [edit]
The tenet, or established fundamental belief, of risk assessment is that international credit managers must constantly attempt to gather as many facts as possible in order to make the best credit decision for their companies. Their challenge is to evaluate and quantify the risk factors associated with granting credit to a buyer. This task becomes more challenging when a buyer is from another country. In the previous lesson, five factors were presented to consider when assessing a credit report: credibility, cost, value, timeliness, and completeness. Although each influences the level of risk to some extent, credibility of the information is particularly important in a risk assessment. For example, how does an international credit manager differentiate between fact and opinion? Another challenge is the fact that many buyers, especially if they are private, will not or cannot provide the necessary tangible information to assist in the risk evaluation process.
Company credit policies do not normally address the specifics of making the “best” credit decision. The credit procedures established by an exporter should include risk parameters. Risk parameters typically focus on clearly stating who is responsible for credit decisions, including the payment terms as well as the transaction value each person is empowered to make in a decision as to payment terms of sale to a buyer.
The credit procedures might also include how much credit an individual or department can extend, the escalation or approval process to decline or increase customer credit lines, and specifics as to when and who determines if a customer credit decision may require collateral.
Risk and Reward [edit]
To risk non-payment or to risk not meeting sales expectations--that is the decision. The issue of selling into the international environment revolves around balancing the risk of being paid on time against the reward of meeting sales and profit targets. The goal, therefore, is to maximize sales while minimizing losses by being paid according to payment terms. There are many risk/reward factors that must be taken into account to balance the expectations of sales and marketing against the financial concerns of slow, partial or complete non-payment. Each company normally establishes expectations or policies as to sales volume and market share.
An example of risk/reward factors could involve selling at a higher price to a customer in a country with significant political and/or economic risk, where risk of nonpayment would be greater than selling the same product in Western Europe at a lower price where risk of nonpayment is lower. Another example might involve working with the sales department for a “first sale” into a new market, perhaps at a lower price than listed on the price sheet, in order for a seller to try and gain a “foothold” for additional business in a country new market, one not sold to before. The risk of selling at the usual price may increase the risk that a foothold in that market will not be gained.
With financial statements, trade references, and bank relationship information, an international credit manager can begin to evaluate a buyer by determining a buyer’s financial capabilities, the manner in which a buyer pays competitors, and how and when a buyer pays bank loans.
The credit risk evaluation is also influenced by the specific situation and country of the customer. Experienced international credit managers (five or more years of credit and collections experience) use their experience to establish levels of risk factors, high and low, depending on the manner in which a seller approaches risk analysis, and reach a credit decision that best meets the needs ofmarketing and finance
“Eight C's" of Credit Risk Assessment for A Global Seller [edit]
Whether a sale is a domestic or international transaction, there are five “C’s” to consider during a credit risk assessment: character, capacity, capital, condition, and collateral. In addition, there are three more “C’s” to consider when the assessment is considered an international transaction: country, currency, and cultural risk
The 5 “C’s” (Domestic and International) [edit]
Character, capacity, capital, condition, and collateral are as follows:
1. Character refers to a buyer’s willingness to pay obligations.
2. Capacity is a buyer’s ability to pay.
3. Capital refers to a buyer’s equity and signifies the financial strength.
4. Condition reflects a buyer’s economic situations.
5. Collateral refers to a buyer’s access to additional resources to use for payment.
Character [edit]
A buyer’s willingness to pay obligations is assessed by considering a buyer’s morality, integrity, trustworthiness, and quality of management. Character is also assessed by considering a buyer’s success, payment record, and information from current suppliers. Examples of information for such assessments should be intangibles (family background, employment record, personal credit history) that are used to form a tentative opinion. The range of findings could include favorable payment records or, on the negative side, a record of bankruptcies or litigation. For many credit mangers, bankers, and risk managers, the trait of “character” is often considered the most important.
Capacity [edit]
A buyer’s ability to pay or a buyer’s ability to generate cash flow and pay when a debt is due can be determined when assessing capacity. Assessing capacity involves considering prior business experience with related operations, particularly large volume orders, exacting specifications, or tight delivery schedules. The outcome of the assessment should show positive evidence of successful operations and on-time bill payments.
Capital [edit]
A buyer’s equity or net worth signifies the financial strength of a buyer and may demonstrate an ability to pay obligations. A positive capital assessment reveals a business that shows increasing sales, profits, and net worth as well as favorable operational trends.
Condition [edit]
The market’s current and expected general economic situations may affect the applicant's business. When assessing condition, consider past and current political history, recent economic events, and currency issues. During the assessment, also consider analyzing industry cycles and consolidations and whether the industry is subject to favorable or unfavorable trends. Credit managers should analyze the business cycle of credit applicants.
Collateral [edit]
A buyer’s ability to access additional resources (equities or other assets) to use for payment if that buyer’s capacity or character fails is important. Specific assets, such as receivables or inventories, can be pledged via liens against these assets, based on international laws that regulate these types of transactions. Other forms of collateral are letters of credit, standby letters of credit from the applicant's bank, guarantees by the firm or its parent, personal guarantees from the principals, and pledges of investment holdings such as stocks or bonds, or other investments. It is important to determine whether potential collateral is free and clear and has not already been pledged to other creditors.
The 3 “C’s (International) [edit]
In international credit management, country, currency and culture risks are inextricably linked to assessing a buyer’s risk. They must be evaluated together for the assessment of one will depend on that of all others.
Country Risk [edit]
Globalization is not just a cliché. It is happening all around, as businesses increasingly look at the world as if it has no national boundaries. Governments, on the other hand, still tend to make policy in what they perceive to be their country's national interests. With globalization, competition sharpens worldwide, but nationalistic laws frequently make for a highly uneven playing field. There are three important principles in country risk assessment:
1. Countries are interdependent.
2. Country conditions affect customers.
3. The assessment must be systematic, objective and relevant.
a. Systematic means it must be proactive, looking ahead rather than being merely reactive. There must be specially assigned people charged with the task of country evaluation who can be held accountable. The process of assessment must be continuous for markets in which the company has an interest, not just a task undertaken when a new order comes in. The process requires regular, reliable, assured flows of information, both into the company and within the company, for instance, from international credit managers to sales people. The evaluation of country information must also be structured so that important signals are not overlooked and key questions are being asked.
b. Objective means that the evaluation should be free of all personal bias. Countries can and do change, both from good to bad and from bad to good, all too often within very short periods of time. External conditions also can change, as they did for Argentina when Brazil devalued its currency; so countries should be assessed not in isolation, but in the context of what goes on around them.
c. Relevance relates to how practical and pertinent the evaluation of the country risk elements fit with the needs of a seller. For example, if a seller is considering the risk factors of selling to Italy and Italy has a change in government, this change might not be enough of an impact for a seller to find it relevant to if or when he/she will be paid. A global credit manager may question the value and significance of examining the cultures that exist in countries where export business is projected. The pro-active company and international credit manager will recognize that personal and company relationships still are critical, both in the development of new markets and in ensuring that payment obligations are processed in a timely manner.
Currency Risk [edit]
Currency risk in international credit management arises from an export invoice (a receivable, an asset) that remains unpaid either because an importer's country has imposed exchange controls, making it impossible to convert the funds to the agreed upon currency or because a devaluation has taken place that raises the local currency cost of paying the invoice so much that an importer is unable to pay. The result can be nonpayment in convertible currency (even if local currency payment has been deposited with a local bank) or delayed payment in convertible currency.
Culture Risk [edit]
Even though an international credit manager may question the value and significance of examining the cultures that exist in countries where export business is projected, the mores and culture of a business located in an offshore country impact risk. In evaluating "culture" as a risk element, it is appropriate to consider examples of cultures in the world and the way they may impact how business is conducted. For example, in Japan, “WA” or “Inner Harmony” is a concept that many Westerners fail to grasp. When it may appear Japanese will have eyes closed at meetings, they are gathering their thoughts, not sleeping! Management in Japan is known to be very participative and team-oriented. In India, the caste system still exists, with underlying cultural variables that structure the life of a person from India. Managers in India generally make most decisions; employees follow rules. In Latin America, the family is of central importance, and loyalty often determines career paths and promotions. In each of these examples, an international manager would be wise to try and understand the “cultural” elements of the business transaction which could impact the process of risk evaluation.
Applying the "C's" [edit]
The number of variables that can influence how each “C” element is interpreted is countless. However, an international credit manager learns, through experience, the situations where one “C” may be more or perhaps less important in evaluating a credit decision.
For example, the “character” of the management may be of such a concern to an analyst (for example, the owner may have been in bankruptcy) that despite a strong company financial structure, the seller may limit credit to the buyer. Likewise, a “country” assessment may result in a risk manager requesting secured credit with a buyer located in a country that is in economic turmoil, even though this buyer is financially sound.
Usually international credit managers who have developed their skills through years of solid training, mentoring, successes and mistakes (yes, mistakes) are well-equipped to balance and weigh the “C’s” of credit in attempting to reach a decision.
Impact of Nonpayment [edit]
What happens if the credit information that is available indicates the buyer is credit-worthy but the buyer still defaults? The impact of nonpayment or true cost of credit in international business is almost invariably greater than it appears. There are four types of impacts associated with nonpayment, over and beyond the impact to sales:
1. bad-debt (loss)2. lost interest3. opportunity costs (alternative use of capital)4. administrative (chasing the reluctant debtor)
Margins, or profits, on export trade are low to begin with and are constantly under attack because often there are more competitors in a global market than in a local market. In many countries, payment delays are expected, so that a credit manager needs to contend with “credit taken” as well as credit extended.
Credit Taken [edit]
The focus of this module has been the concept of extending credit. The next step is to discuss an expanded version of credit extended called “credit taken.” An example of credit taken is as follows:
Buyer XZY is given a line of credit of $100,000 and expected to pay in 30 days. On the 25th day, the buyer asks the seller to approve another order for $100,000, meaning that on the 25th of the month, the credit extended is $200,000. The seller agrees because the buyer commits to make payment for the first $100,000 on the 30th of the month. However, the buyer reneges on this promise so that the seller is owed more than the original agreed-upon credit line.
The chances of nonpayment are always possible, which means the costs associated with nonpayment always take a toll on the profit.
Identifying Costs [edit]
Before presenting the types of costs associated with nonpayment, you should first consider how sales are tracked from a bookkeeping perspective and then consider how costs impact sales.
Some companies do not separate exports sales from domestic sales in their accounting systems. To them, a sale is a sale. However, international sales, as you are learning, sometimes carry costs and risks that domestic sales do not. So what happens if domestic and international sales are combined?
Imagine for a moment that Company A sells its products for $100 each. Costs for selling domestically are $92 for each unit. Costs for selling internationally are $94 for each unit (due to a shipping cost differential). It may seem easy enough to track the differences, but a problem could occur when you add the method of payment and potential risk of nonpayment because variable costs (costs that vary from sale to sale) change. Assume, for example, that domestic sales are paid via 25% cash and 75% credit. The chances of losing profits are less than if all sales were credit. If the domestic credit tends to be low risk of nonpayment, costs of nonpayment may not be a large factor. However, international sales would probably be all credit. Add to that an increased risk of nonpayment and the profit associated with international sales could be significantly impacted.
Keeping the sales and costs together makes it difficult to identify the true profit of domestic sales versus international sales. Knowing the costs of international sales can impact marketing strategies, pricing strategies, and credit decisions.
Bad Debt Value [edit]
Bad debts are obligations that are not collectible for a variety of reasons such as lack of cash flow from a buyer to remit, misunderstanding of terms and conditions and a resulting inability of a buyer and seller to agree on those differences. Bad debts, under the tax laws of the US, can only be written off as an expense by sellers if they can demonstrate, usually through hiring of a collection agency or lawyer, that every effort has been made to make the collection.
In a survey of over 5,000 businesses in manufacturing, distribution and retail, the National Association of Credit Management found that each dollar of accounts past due is worth the following:
Three Months
Six Months
One Year
Two Years
$.90
$.50
$.25
$.00
Prev Next
Retrieved from "http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Effects_of_Late_or_Non-payments/Bad_Debt_Value"
Interest [edit]
Assume for a moment that you are a seller and can earn 12% on your money if it were in the bank. This is money that you earned from sales (Sales-Cost=Profit). Assume now that you have agreed to wait for your payment (that is, you have extended credit). Had you not extended credit, hypothetically you would have money from the sale, which would be in the bank earning interest. Extending credit means you are losing the opportunity to earn interest and, therefore, this is a cost.
Another way to consider interest as a cost is to assume you have a loan from the bank. That loan was used to produce your products. Until that loan is repaid, you are charged interest. If the buyer were to give you cash at purchase, you could apply that money to your loan and thus reduce your interest charges and thus your cost. By extending credit to the buyer, you are agreeing to incur interest costs against the money you borrowed in order to produce the product.
Do some math and see how these scenarios might play out (in simple terms). Assume that for each $100 in sales, $95 is cost and $5 is profit. Assume you extend credit and therefore do not receive your monies until some time in the future. If your interest costs are 12% per year (assuming that this money could generate a return of 12% in interest to the seller), your first month’s cost would be $1.00 (12% x $100 = $12.00 divided by 12 months = $1.00). See the table below for additional clarification.
Sales
Cost
Net Profit
Month
Amount
Profit After Interest Payment
$100
$95
$5
First
$1.00
$4.00
$100
$95
$5
Fourth
$4.00
$1.00
$100
$95
$5
Sixth
$6.00
($1.00)
$100
$95
$5
Eighth
$8.00
($3.00)
$100
$95
$5
Twelfth
$12.00
($7.00)
Prev Next
Retrieved from "http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Effects_of_Late_or_Non-payments/Interest"
Opportunity Cost and, Alternate Use of Capital [edit]
Consider an example using a yearly sales figure of $12,000,000 or $33,000 per day. If you were receiving $33,000 in cash every day, you would have the opportunity to invest that money back into your business by making more product, investing in marketing, creating a new product line, purchasing new equipment, and investing in internal improvements for employees.
However, if you extend credit to a buyer and agree to wait for that $33,000, you are missing the opportunity those investments could yield. Depending on the investment, the opportunity cost would vary.
Therefore, the goal is to gain access to your $33,000 per day as soon as possible. One way to do this is to reduce your DSO (day’s sales outstanding). If you are currently receiving your daily $33,000 45 days after the sale and you reduce that 45 DSO to 30, you have just gained access to approximately $500,000 that you could invest sooner rather than later. Sooner could mean the difference between getting into the Chinese market or not.
Administrative [edit]
There are several examples of administrative costs.
Losing the ability to discount [edit]
For example, if a seller sold to a buyer who was slow to pay, this seller’s cash flow is impacted. Assume this seller has purchased products and services from vendors as part of the business. These vendors may offer a 1% discount to the seller if paid in 10 days. If the buyer had paid on time, the seller could have paid the vendor in 10 days and therefore saved 1%. This is an example of the seller losing the ability to "take" the 1% discount offered by the vendor.
Another discount example may include a transaction with a bank. Assume a seller has the option to prepay his loan with a bank. In return, the bank will discount the fees due the bank. Just as in the other example, if a buyer does not pay on time this seller might not have the money to prepay the loan and receive a discount. This seller has lost the opportunity to save costs associated with the loan. This is a crucial cost, especially in a high-interest period.
Paying penalty/late charges [edit]
In this situation, instead of missing out on a discount for not being able to pay earlier, a seller has to pay a penalty for being late. If this seller does not receive payment promptly from the buyer, this seller’s cash flow may be impacted; thus, there is the potential that suppliers will be paid (obligations) late and therefore incur charges. Another impact associated with late penalties is the possibility of restricted credit in the future.
Increasing risk factors [edit]
Uncollected debt is a cost to a business. The older the debt, the harder to collect.
Maintaining administrative, bookkeeping functions [edit]
Uncollected debt costs not only include the cost of the product sold and the lost profit but they also mean administrative costs ( letters, bill chasers, etc) that a seller might use to try and recoup some of the initial cost associated with the product. In other words, another impact of nonpayment is the need to chase the reluctant debtor.
The principles of risk assessment are particularly critical for several reasons; but, most importantly, any extension of credit requires an analysis of a buyer requesting credit and a determination as to the level of risk associated with a buyer’s financial ability to pay a seller according to terms.
The risk, specifically commercial risk, associated with an international market is very important. In dealing with global or international markets, the assessment of a buyer takes on another dimension, the dimension of being international, namely, the risk of selling and getting paid in a timely manner when a buyer is in a country different from a seller.
Commercial risk in international markets refers to the same situation encountered in the domestic market, which is the risk of late/non-payment by a (foreign) buyer or intermediary for goods shipped/services completed, resulting from
insolvency or bankruptcy of a buyer
a buyer’s failure to pay for goods/services per the due date of the agreed upon payment terms
a buyer’s failure or refusal to accept the goods that were shipped or the services provided as agreed in the contract.
When performing a risk assessment, sellers must consider the implication of selling into the international market. A seller must take into account factors that exist in global transactions, but not in domestic sales. Such factors include changes in country governments, currency values, economic and cultural issues. Assessing political and economic risks and cultural issues of other countries is discussed in detail in Module 1, so here you will find highlighted only a few points in context with granting credit.
The bottom line point is that risk assessment is important because the impact of non-payment to a seller may result in cost of money and bad debt events.
Unit Objective [edit]
The goal of this material is to describe for you the commercial risks and the effect of late and/or nonpayment from overseas buyers. By the end of this unit you will be able to
identify commercial risk.
identify the tenets of risk assessment.
identify the “Eight C's" of credit risk assessment for the global seller.
identify the impact of nonpayment.
Unit Outline [edit]
Introduction
Tenets of Risk Assessment
Risk and Reward
"Eight C's" of Credit Risk Assessment for A Global Seller
The 5 "C's" (Domestic and International
The 3 "C's" (International)
Applying the "C's"
Impact of Nonpayment
Identifying Costs
Bad Debt Value
Interest
Opportunity Cost and Alternate Use of Capital
Administrative
Tenets of Risk Assessment [edit]
The tenet, or established fundamental belief, of risk assessment is that international credit managers must constantly attempt to gather as many facts as possible in order to make the best credit decision for their companies. Their challenge is to evaluate and quantify the risk factors associated with granting credit to a buyer. This task becomes more challenging when a buyer is from another country. In the previous lesson, five factors were presented to consider when assessing a credit report: credibility, cost, value, timeliness, and completeness. Although each influences the level of risk to some extent, credibility of the information is particularly important in a risk assessment. For example, how does an international credit manager differentiate between fact and opinion? Another challenge is the fact that many buyers, especially if they are private, will not or cannot provide the necessary tangible information to assist in the risk evaluation process.
Company credit policies do not normally address the specifics of making the “best” credit decision. The credit procedures established by an exporter should include risk parameters. Risk parameters typically focus on clearly stating who is responsible for credit decisions, including the payment terms as well as the transaction value each person is empowered to make in a decision as to payment terms of sale to a buyer.
The credit procedures might also include how much credit an individual or department can extend, the escalation or approval process to decline or increase customer credit lines, and specifics as to when and who determines if a customer credit decision may require collateral.
Risk and Reward [edit]
To risk non-payment or to risk not meeting sales expectations--that is the decision. The issue of selling into the international environment revolves around balancing the risk of being paid on time against the reward of meeting sales and profit targets. The goal, therefore, is to maximize sales while minimizing losses by being paid according to payment terms. There are many risk/reward factors that must be taken into account to balance the expectations of sales and marketing against the financial concerns of slow, partial or complete non-payment. Each company normally establishes expectations or policies as to sales volume and market share.
An example of risk/reward factors could involve selling at a higher price to a customer in a country with significant political and/or economic risk, where risk of nonpayment would be greater than selling the same product in Western Europe at a lower price where risk of nonpayment is lower. Another example might involve working with the sales department for a “first sale” into a new market, perhaps at a lower price than listed on the price sheet, in order for a seller to try and gain a “foothold” for additional business in a country new market, one not sold to before. The risk of selling at the usual price may increase the risk that a foothold in that market will not be gained.
With financial statements, trade references, and bank relationship information, an international credit manager can begin to evaluate a buyer by determining a buyer’s financial capabilities, the manner in which a buyer pays competitors, and how and when a buyer pays bank loans.
The credit risk evaluation is also influenced by the specific situation and country of the customer. Experienced international credit managers (five or more years of credit and collections experience) use their experience to establish levels of risk factors, high and low, depending on the manner in which a seller approaches risk analysis, and reach a credit decision that best meets the needs ofmarketing and finance
“Eight C's" of Credit Risk Assessment for A Global Seller [edit]
Whether a sale is a domestic or international transaction, there are five “C’s” to consider during a credit risk assessment: character, capacity, capital, condition, and collateral. In addition, there are three more “C’s” to consider when the assessment is considered an international transaction: country, currency, and cultural risk
The 5 “C’s” (Domestic and International) [edit]
Character, capacity, capital, condition, and collateral are as follows:
1. Character refers to a buyer’s willingness to pay obligations.
2. Capacity is a buyer’s ability to pay.
3. Capital refers to a buyer’s equity and signifies the financial strength.
4. Condition reflects a buyer’s economic situations.
5. Collateral refers to a buyer’s access to additional resources to use for payment.
Character [edit]
A buyer’s willingness to pay obligations is assessed by considering a buyer’s morality, integrity, trustworthiness, and quality of management. Character is also assessed by considering a buyer’s success, payment record, and information from current suppliers. Examples of information for such assessments should be intangibles (family background, employment record, personal credit history) that are used to form a tentative opinion. The range of findings could include favorable payment records or, on the negative side, a record of bankruptcies or litigation. For many credit mangers, bankers, and risk managers, the trait of “character” is often considered the most important.
Capacity [edit]
A buyer’s ability to pay or a buyer’s ability to generate cash flow and pay when a debt is due can be determined when assessing capacity. Assessing capacity involves considering prior business experience with related operations, particularly large volume orders, exacting specifications, or tight delivery schedules. The outcome of the assessment should show positive evidence of successful operations and on-time bill payments.
Capital [edit]
A buyer’s equity or net worth signifies the financial strength of a buyer and may demonstrate an ability to pay obligations. A positive capital assessment reveals a business that shows increasing sales, profits, and net worth as well as favorable operational trends.
Condition [edit]
The market’s current and expected general economic situations may affect the applicant's business. When assessing condition, consider past and current political history, recent economic events, and currency issues. During the assessment, also consider analyzing industry cycles and consolidations and whether the industry is subject to favorable or unfavorable trends. Credit managers should analyze the business cycle of credit applicants.
Collateral [edit]
A buyer’s ability to access additional resources (equities or other assets) to use for payment if that buyer’s capacity or character fails is important. Specific assets, such as receivables or inventories, can be pledged via liens against these assets, based on international laws that regulate these types of transactions. Other forms of collateral are letters of credit, standby letters of credit from the applicant's bank, guarantees by the firm or its parent, personal guarantees from the principals, and pledges of investment holdings such as stocks or bonds, or other investments. It is important to determine whether potential collateral is free and clear and has not already been pledged to other creditors.
The 3 “C’s (International) [edit]
In international credit management, country, currency and culture risks are inextricably linked to assessing a buyer’s risk. They must be evaluated together for the assessment of one will depend on that of all others.
Country Risk [edit]
Globalization is not just a cliché. It is happening all around, as businesses increasingly look at the world as if it has no national boundaries. Governments, on the other hand, still tend to make policy in what they perceive to be their country's national interests. With globalization, competition sharpens worldwide, but nationalistic laws frequently make for a highly uneven playing field. There are three important principles in country risk assessment:
1. Countries are interdependent.
2. Country conditions affect customers.
3. The assessment must be systematic, objective and relevant.
a. Systematic means it must be proactive, looking ahead rather than being merely reactive. There must be specially assigned people charged with the task of country evaluation who can be held accountable. The process of assessment must be continuous for markets in which the company has an interest, not just a task undertaken when a new order comes in. The process requires regular, reliable, assured flows of information, both into the company and within the company, for instance, from international credit managers to sales people. The evaluation of country information must also be structured so that important signals are not overlooked and key questions are being asked.
b. Objective means that the evaluation should be free of all personal bias. Countries can and do change, both from good to bad and from bad to good, all too often within very short periods of time. External conditions also can change, as they did for Argentina when Brazil devalued its currency; so countries should be assessed not in isolation, but in the context of what goes on around them.
c. Relevance relates to how practical and pertinent the evaluation of the country risk elements fit with the needs of a seller. For example, if a seller is considering the risk factors of selling to Italy and Italy has a change in government, this change might not be enough of an impact for a seller to find it relevant to if or when he/she will be paid. A global credit manager may question the value and significance of examining the cultures that exist in countries where export business is projected. The pro-active company and international credit manager will recognize that personal and company relationships still are critical, both in the development of new markets and in ensuring that payment obligations are processed in a timely manner.
Currency Risk [edit]
Currency risk in international credit management arises from an export invoice (a receivable, an asset) that remains unpaid either because an importer's country has imposed exchange controls, making it impossible to convert the funds to the agreed upon currency or because a devaluation has taken place that raises the local currency cost of paying the invoice so much that an importer is unable to pay. The result can be nonpayment in convertible currency (even if local currency payment has been deposited with a local bank) or delayed payment in convertible currency.
Culture Risk [edit]
Even though an international credit manager may question the value and significance of examining the cultures that exist in countries where export business is projected, the mores and culture of a business located in an offshore country impact risk. In evaluating "culture" as a risk element, it is appropriate to consider examples of cultures in the world and the way they may impact how business is conducted. For example, in Japan, “WA” or “Inner Harmony” is a concept that many Westerners fail to grasp. When it may appear Japanese will have eyes closed at meetings, they are gathering their thoughts, not sleeping! Management in Japan is known to be very participative and team-oriented. In India, the caste system still exists, with underlying cultural variables that structure the life of a person from India. Managers in India generally make most decisions; employees follow rules. In Latin America, the family is of central importance, and loyalty often determines career paths and promotions. In each of these examples, an international manager would be wise to try and understand the “cultural” elements of the business transaction which could impact the process of risk evaluation.
Applying the "C's" [edit]
The number of variables that can influence how each “C” element is interpreted is countless. However, an international credit manager learns, through experience, the situations where one “C” may be more or perhaps less important in evaluating a credit decision.
For example, the “character” of the management may be of such a concern to an analyst (for example, the owner may have been in bankruptcy) that despite a strong company financial structure, the seller may limit credit to the buyer. Likewise, a “country” assessment may result in a risk manager requesting secured credit with a buyer located in a country that is in economic turmoil, even though this buyer is financially sound.
Usually international credit managers who have developed their skills through years of solid training, mentoring, successes and mistakes (yes, mistakes) are well-equipped to balance and weigh the “C’s” of credit in attempting to reach a decision.
Impact of Nonpayment [edit]
What happens if the credit information that is available indicates the buyer is credit-worthy but the buyer still defaults? The impact of nonpayment or true cost of credit in international business is almost invariably greater than it appears. There are four types of impacts associated with nonpayment, over and beyond the impact to sales:
1. bad-debt (loss)2. lost interest3. opportunity costs (alternative use of capital)4. administrative (chasing the reluctant debtor)
Margins, or profits, on export trade are low to begin with and are constantly under attack because often there are more competitors in a global market than in a local market. In many countries, payment delays are expected, so that a credit manager needs to contend with “credit taken” as well as credit extended.
Credit Taken [edit]
The focus of this module has been the concept of extending credit. The next step is to discuss an expanded version of credit extended called “credit taken.” An example of credit taken is as follows:
Buyer XZY is given a line of credit of $100,000 and expected to pay in 30 days. On the 25th day, the buyer asks the seller to approve another order for $100,000, meaning that on the 25th of the month, the credit extended is $200,000. The seller agrees because the buyer commits to make payment for the first $100,000 on the 30th of the month. However, the buyer reneges on this promise so that the seller is owed more than the original agreed-upon credit line.
The chances of nonpayment are always possible, which means the costs associated with nonpayment always take a toll on the profit.
Identifying Costs [edit]
Before presenting the types of costs associated with nonpayment, you should first consider how sales are tracked from a bookkeeping perspective and then consider how costs impact sales.
Some companies do not separate exports sales from domestic sales in their accounting systems. To them, a sale is a sale. However, international sales, as you are learning, sometimes carry costs and risks that domestic sales do not. So what happens if domestic and international sales are combined?
Imagine for a moment that Company A sells its products for $100 each. Costs for selling domestically are $92 for each unit. Costs for selling internationally are $94 for each unit (due to a shipping cost differential). It may seem easy enough to track the differences, but a problem could occur when you add the method of payment and potential risk of nonpayment because variable costs (costs that vary from sale to sale) change. Assume, for example, that domestic sales are paid via 25% cash and 75% credit. The chances of losing profits are less than if all sales were credit. If the domestic credit tends to be low risk of nonpayment, costs of nonpayment may not be a large factor. However, international sales would probably be all credit. Add to that an increased risk of nonpayment and the profit associated with international sales could be significantly impacted.
Keeping the sales and costs together makes it difficult to identify the true profit of domestic sales versus international sales. Knowing the costs of international sales can impact marketing strategies, pricing strategies, and credit decisions.
Bad Debt Value [edit]
Bad debts are obligations that are not collectible for a variety of reasons such as lack of cash flow from a buyer to remit, misunderstanding of terms and conditions and a resulting inability of a buyer and seller to agree on those differences. Bad debts, under the tax laws of the US, can only be written off as an expense by sellers if they can demonstrate, usually through hiring of a collection agency or lawyer, that every effort has been made to make the collection.
In a survey of over 5,000 businesses in manufacturing, distribution and retail, the National Association of Credit Management found that each dollar of accounts past due is worth the following:
Three Months
Six Months
One Year
Two Years
$.90
$.50
$.25
$.00
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Interest [edit]
Assume for a moment that you are a seller and can earn 12% on your money if it were in the bank. This is money that you earned from sales (Sales-Cost=Profit). Assume now that you have agreed to wait for your payment (that is, you have extended credit). Had you not extended credit, hypothetically you would have money from the sale, which would be in the bank earning interest. Extending credit means you are losing the opportunity to earn interest and, therefore, this is a cost.
Another way to consider interest as a cost is to assume you have a loan from the bank. That loan was used to produce your products. Until that loan is repaid, you are charged interest. If the buyer were to give you cash at purchase, you could apply that money to your loan and thus reduce your interest charges and thus your cost. By extending credit to the buyer, you are agreeing to incur interest costs against the money you borrowed in order to produce the product.
Do some math and see how these scenarios might play out (in simple terms). Assume that for each $100 in sales, $95 is cost and $5 is profit. Assume you extend credit and therefore do not receive your monies until some time in the future. If your interest costs are 12% per year (assuming that this money could generate a return of 12% in interest to the seller), your first month’s cost would be $1.00 (12% x $100 = $12.00 divided by 12 months = $1.00). See the table below for additional clarification.
Sales
Cost
Net Profit
Month
Amount
Profit After Interest Payment
$100
$95
$5
First
$1.00
$4.00
$100
$95
$5
Fourth
$4.00
$1.00
$100
$95
$5
Sixth
$6.00
($1.00)
$100
$95
$5
Eighth
$8.00
($3.00)
$100
$95
$5
Twelfth
$12.00
($7.00)
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Opportunity Cost and, Alternate Use of Capital [edit]
Consider an example using a yearly sales figure of $12,000,000 or $33,000 per day. If you were receiving $33,000 in cash every day, you would have the opportunity to invest that money back into your business by making more product, investing in marketing, creating a new product line, purchasing new equipment, and investing in internal improvements for employees.
However, if you extend credit to a buyer and agree to wait for that $33,000, you are missing the opportunity those investments could yield. Depending on the investment, the opportunity cost would vary.
Therefore, the goal is to gain access to your $33,000 per day as soon as possible. One way to do this is to reduce your DSO (day’s sales outstanding). If you are currently receiving your daily $33,000 45 days after the sale and you reduce that 45 DSO to 30, you have just gained access to approximately $500,000 that you could invest sooner rather than later. Sooner could mean the difference between getting into the Chinese market or not.
Administrative [edit]
There are several examples of administrative costs.
Losing the ability to discount [edit]
For example, if a seller sold to a buyer who was slow to pay, this seller’s cash flow is impacted. Assume this seller has purchased products and services from vendors as part of the business. These vendors may offer a 1% discount to the seller if paid in 10 days. If the buyer had paid on time, the seller could have paid the vendor in 10 days and therefore saved 1%. This is an example of the seller losing the ability to "take" the 1% discount offered by the vendor.
Another discount example may include a transaction with a bank. Assume a seller has the option to prepay his loan with a bank. In return, the bank will discount the fees due the bank. Just as in the other example, if a buyer does not pay on time this seller might not have the money to prepay the loan and receive a discount. This seller has lost the opportunity to save costs associated with the loan. This is a crucial cost, especially in a high-interest period.
Paying penalty/late charges [edit]
In this situation, instead of missing out on a discount for not being able to pay earlier, a seller has to pay a penalty for being late. If this seller does not receive payment promptly from the buyer, this seller’s cash flow may be impacted; thus, there is the potential that suppliers will be paid (obligations) late and therefore incur charges. Another impact associated with late penalties is the possibility of restricted credit in the future.
Increasing risk factors [edit]
Uncollected debt is a cost to a business. The older the debt, the harder to collect.
Maintaining administrative, bookkeeping functions [edit]
Uncollected debt costs not only include the cost of the product sold and the lost profit but they also mean administrative costs ( letters, bill chasers, etc) that a seller might use to try and recoup some of the initial cost associated with the product. In other words, another impact of nonpayment is the need to chase the reluctant debtor.
Cultural Issues Affecting International Trade
Understanding cultural differences is a critical aspect of international business. An international manager is not expected to master the cultures of the world; however, understanding the ways culture affects business is necessary. When selecting markets for entry or as a source of supply, an international manager must become familiar with the specific cultural factors, business etiquette and issues involved in conducting business abroad.
Unit Objective [edit]
The goal of this material is to introduce you to cultural issues that may arise in a buyer’s country and the impact they may have on payment and money transmission methods, as well as the level of government control, corruption issues and sources of financing that may or may not be available in the country. By the end of this unit your will be able to:
identify cultural issues that may impact trade finance negotiations.
identify cultural issues that may affect international finance methods.
Unit Outline [edit]
Introduction
Culture Defined
Culture Applied
Culture Defined [edit]
Culture is defined as the integrated system of learned behavior patterns that are distinguishing characteristics of the members of any given society, including everything that a group thinks, says, does and makes – its customs, religion, language, material artifacts and shared systems of attitudes and feelings. Understanding culture involves understanding people, which is, as we all know, an extremely difficult task. Today, because of technology, the internet, the media, travel, and the opening of once-closed societies, culture attitudes have shifted somewhat, becoming more dynamic and less geographically sensitive.
Geert Hofstede, a Danish psychologist, interviewed thousands of IBM employees during his employment and subsequently developed a cultural model which he claims summarizes the different cultures.
Hofstede’s model contains five dimensions, with each dimension given a value between 1 and 120:
individualism versus collectivism – looks at the relationship between individuals and others in their society.
power distance – quantifies how well individuals accept the different levels of power that may be evident among them.
uncertainty avoidance – looks at how well individuals accept uncertainty and risk.
masculinity versus femininity – ranks the extent to which a society embraces masculine values (assertiveness, status, financial rewards) versus feminine values (quality of life). Societies with a stronger masculine culture tend to emphasize the differences in the role of the sexes.
long-term versus short-term orientation – added to help distinguish the difference in thinking between the East and the West.
Models like Hofstede’s provide international managers with a tool to differentiate, compare, and understand cultures and the individuals they will be dealing with abroad. Two important points every international business person must remember:
Understanding culture does not mean judging or ranking cultures or individuals. One’s own culture is not the standard against which others are to be judged. Avoid being ethnocentric.
Applying too many generalizations is dangerous. A manager must understand culture as a framework in which to deal with individual business partners.
There is a saying in international business, “Business is based on relationships.” Developing strong relationships with individuals is often the best way to make business ventures successful.
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Culture Applied [edit]
Culture is most often viewed as the language or religion of a country, but there is obviously more to culture than these two components as Hofstede’s model shows. A successful international business manager must know what cultural matters may affect developing relationships and the impact they have financially on a business venture.
Language [edit]
Financial issues are very much affected by language. Negotiations between a buyer and seller include price, delivery dates, shipping methods, and methods of payment. If either party is not completely fluent in the other party’s language, misunderstandings may arise which could lead to late payment or no payment at all. This situation may also arise between individuals who speak the “same” language as well. Consider the differences in word connotations and spelling between the English spoken in the US, UK, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand. English isn’t the same English everywhere.
Another language issue that may affect payment, as Hofstede indicates, is the meaning of words. Consider the classic example of the Spanish word “mañana.” Literally translated, it means “tomorrow”; however in business it more appropriately means “not today.” So, if you are asking your customer in Latin America when payment will be ready to wire transfer and the answer is “mañana,” you very likely will not know when payment will actually be made. It could be the next day, but such is not a guarantee since the word has very broad usage.
Another issue has to do with the Asian issue of saving face. Rarely will a business associate say “no” directly since this is considered too bold, direct, and rude. The issue, of course, is how then does an American business person know if payment will be made or if the shipment will be ready on time if the Asian company does not give a direct answer. Knowing and understanding the nuances of a culture will help in interpreting the meaning of statements and therefore knowing when and how business will be conducted.
Religion [edit]
In the US, business and religion are interrelated since there is consideration of both secular and religious holidays in product offerings, sales and distribution. What we rarely experience in the US is a crossover between business law and religion. Such, however, is not the case all over the world.
In countries where Islam is the predominant religion, Sharia law is the body of Islamic law which regulates the public and some private aspects of life. Islamic law prohibits usury, the collection and payment of interest, and prohibits trading in financial risk (which is considered a form of gambling). Islamic law also prohibits investing in businesses that are considered unlawful (businesses that sell alcohol or pork, or businesses that produce media such as gossip columns or pornography, which are contrary to Islamic values). These prohibitions may limit international business dealings with companies located in the countries that practice Sharia law. Ideas to overcome these issues could include:
utilizing a bank that does not charge interest on loans
removing statements on invoices that add interest to balances if payments are late
creating independent companies that do not deal in products forbidden by Islamic law
avoiding long-term foreign exchange exposure which will eliminate the need for future or option contracts.
Another example of religion affecting financial transactions can be found in Israel. During the Passover season businesses are not allowed to come in contact with or inventory any products that contain yeast, which means destroying the product or selling it prior to Passover. Unless previous arrangements are made, this situation could increase the cost of products, or lead to spoilage and loss of inventory.
Corruption [edit]
Corruption as defined by Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (11th edition) is an “inducement to wrong by improper or unlawful means (as bribery).” Political corruption, that is, corruption of a political system or institution where public officials seek illegitimate personal gain through actions such as bribery, is the kind of corruption that directly affects the financial side of business.
The level of corruption that is present in a system will affect how business is conducted between companies as well as the interaction or payment required by government or other officials. Being aware of the potential situation and the possible added costs to business are important for an international manager to prepare for. One tool that can be used is the Corruption Perceptions Index, which measures "the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians."
Blue colors indicate little corruption; red colors indicate much corruption. Data source: Corruption Perceptions Index 2006 by Transparency International
The greatest challenges occur when business is conducted between companies located in a country that is blue and one that is red. Understanding that the individuals in the red country may not consider bribery illegal or immoral but simply the way business is done can be a significant challenge for “blue country” companies. Questions that international managers may have to consider include the following:
How much do we budget for “grease payments”?
Can such payments be legally made?
How are such payments accounted for on the financial records?
Will the delay in such payments result in a slowdown of business or payment?
Will a larger payment from a competitive company limit our ability to conduct business?
Government Involvement [edit]
The culture of a country may also determine the level of government involvement that is present in a market. Laws developed based on a society and its religion will ultimately impact the business law structure of the country as well. Issues that international managers may encounter include these:
code law (written law) versus common law (application of precedent) systems
level of development of the business law system: consider the British system which has been around for centuries versus the Chinese system which is being created daily
cultures that prefer to litigate over a dispute versus those that prefer to arbitrate or mediate
systems that require that laws be written before business is conducted (Europe) versus those that wait until issues arise to legislate (US)
inclusive versus exclusive statements: many countries in the Middle East will not allow product to pass through Israel. The
US does not allow exclusionary statements such as this to be made in business documents. All of the above issues may cause delays in the simple ability to conduct or understand how to conduct business, receive payment in a timely manner, or move currencies to make payment for products.
Prev Next
Retrieved from "http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cultural_Issues_Affecting_International_Trade/Culture_Applied"
Unit Objective [edit]
The goal of this material is to introduce you to cultural issues that may arise in a buyer’s country and the impact they may have on payment and money transmission methods, as well as the level of government control, corruption issues and sources of financing that may or may not be available in the country. By the end of this unit your will be able to:
identify cultural issues that may impact trade finance negotiations.
identify cultural issues that may affect international finance methods.
Unit Outline [edit]
Introduction
Culture Defined
Culture Applied
Culture Defined [edit]
Culture is defined as the integrated system of learned behavior patterns that are distinguishing characteristics of the members of any given society, including everything that a group thinks, says, does and makes – its customs, religion, language, material artifacts and shared systems of attitudes and feelings. Understanding culture involves understanding people, which is, as we all know, an extremely difficult task. Today, because of technology, the internet, the media, travel, and the opening of once-closed societies, culture attitudes have shifted somewhat, becoming more dynamic and less geographically sensitive.
Geert Hofstede, a Danish psychologist, interviewed thousands of IBM employees during his employment and subsequently developed a cultural model which he claims summarizes the different cultures.
Hofstede’s model contains five dimensions, with each dimension given a value between 1 and 120:
individualism versus collectivism – looks at the relationship between individuals and others in their society.
power distance – quantifies how well individuals accept the different levels of power that may be evident among them.
uncertainty avoidance – looks at how well individuals accept uncertainty and risk.
masculinity versus femininity – ranks the extent to which a society embraces masculine values (assertiveness, status, financial rewards) versus feminine values (quality of life). Societies with a stronger masculine culture tend to emphasize the differences in the role of the sexes.
long-term versus short-term orientation – added to help distinguish the difference in thinking between the East and the West.
Models like Hofstede’s provide international managers with a tool to differentiate, compare, and understand cultures and the individuals they will be dealing with abroad. Two important points every international business person must remember:
Understanding culture does not mean judging or ranking cultures or individuals. One’s own culture is not the standard against which others are to be judged. Avoid being ethnocentric.
Applying too many generalizations is dangerous. A manager must understand culture as a framework in which to deal with individual business partners.
There is a saying in international business, “Business is based on relationships.” Developing strong relationships with individuals is often the best way to make business ventures successful.
Prev Next
Retrieved from "http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cultural_Issues_Affecting_International_Trade/Culture_Defined"
Culture Applied [edit]
Culture is most often viewed as the language or religion of a country, but there is obviously more to culture than these two components as Hofstede’s model shows. A successful international business manager must know what cultural matters may affect developing relationships and the impact they have financially on a business venture.
Language [edit]
Financial issues are very much affected by language. Negotiations between a buyer and seller include price, delivery dates, shipping methods, and methods of payment. If either party is not completely fluent in the other party’s language, misunderstandings may arise which could lead to late payment or no payment at all. This situation may also arise between individuals who speak the “same” language as well. Consider the differences in word connotations and spelling between the English spoken in the US, UK, Australia, South Africa, and New Zealand. English isn’t the same English everywhere.
Another language issue that may affect payment, as Hofstede indicates, is the meaning of words. Consider the classic example of the Spanish word “mañana.” Literally translated, it means “tomorrow”; however in business it more appropriately means “not today.” So, if you are asking your customer in Latin America when payment will be ready to wire transfer and the answer is “mañana,” you very likely will not know when payment will actually be made. It could be the next day, but such is not a guarantee since the word has very broad usage.
Another issue has to do with the Asian issue of saving face. Rarely will a business associate say “no” directly since this is considered too bold, direct, and rude. The issue, of course, is how then does an American business person know if payment will be made or if the shipment will be ready on time if the Asian company does not give a direct answer. Knowing and understanding the nuances of a culture will help in interpreting the meaning of statements and therefore knowing when and how business will be conducted.
Religion [edit]
In the US, business and religion are interrelated since there is consideration of both secular and religious holidays in product offerings, sales and distribution. What we rarely experience in the US is a crossover between business law and religion. Such, however, is not the case all over the world.
In countries where Islam is the predominant religion, Sharia law is the body of Islamic law which regulates the public and some private aspects of life. Islamic law prohibits usury, the collection and payment of interest, and prohibits trading in financial risk (which is considered a form of gambling). Islamic law also prohibits investing in businesses that are considered unlawful (businesses that sell alcohol or pork, or businesses that produce media such as gossip columns or pornography, which are contrary to Islamic values). These prohibitions may limit international business dealings with companies located in the countries that practice Sharia law. Ideas to overcome these issues could include:
utilizing a bank that does not charge interest on loans
removing statements on invoices that add interest to balances if payments are late
creating independent companies that do not deal in products forbidden by Islamic law
avoiding long-term foreign exchange exposure which will eliminate the need for future or option contracts.
Another example of religion affecting financial transactions can be found in Israel. During the Passover season businesses are not allowed to come in contact with or inventory any products that contain yeast, which means destroying the product or selling it prior to Passover. Unless previous arrangements are made, this situation could increase the cost of products, or lead to spoilage and loss of inventory.
Corruption [edit]
Corruption as defined by Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary (11th edition) is an “inducement to wrong by improper or unlawful means (as bribery).” Political corruption, that is, corruption of a political system or institution where public officials seek illegitimate personal gain through actions such as bribery, is the kind of corruption that directly affects the financial side of business.
The level of corruption that is present in a system will affect how business is conducted between companies as well as the interaction or payment required by government or other officials. Being aware of the potential situation and the possible added costs to business are important for an international manager to prepare for. One tool that can be used is the Corruption Perceptions Index, which measures "the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and politicians."
Blue colors indicate little corruption; red colors indicate much corruption. Data source: Corruption Perceptions Index 2006 by Transparency International
The greatest challenges occur when business is conducted between companies located in a country that is blue and one that is red. Understanding that the individuals in the red country may not consider bribery illegal or immoral but simply the way business is done can be a significant challenge for “blue country” companies. Questions that international managers may have to consider include the following:
How much do we budget for “grease payments”?
Can such payments be legally made?
How are such payments accounted for on the financial records?
Will the delay in such payments result in a slowdown of business or payment?
Will a larger payment from a competitive company limit our ability to conduct business?
Government Involvement [edit]
The culture of a country may also determine the level of government involvement that is present in a market. Laws developed based on a society and its religion will ultimately impact the business law structure of the country as well. Issues that international managers may encounter include these:
code law (written law) versus common law (application of precedent) systems
level of development of the business law system: consider the British system which has been around for centuries versus the Chinese system which is being created daily
cultures that prefer to litigate over a dispute versus those that prefer to arbitrate or mediate
systems that require that laws be written before business is conducted (Europe) versus those that wait until issues arise to legislate (US)
inclusive versus exclusive statements: many countries in the Middle East will not allow product to pass through Israel. The
US does not allow exclusionary statements such as this to be made in business documents. All of the above issues may cause delays in the simple ability to conduct or understand how to conduct business, receive payment in a timely manner, or move currencies to make payment for products.
Prev Next
Retrieved from "http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Cultural_Issues_Affecting_International_Trade/Culture_Applied"
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Introduction
For years now, computer networks such as the Internet have been carrying text-based messages around the world. Most often, these messages take the form of electronic mail, though real-time chat programs are also used. As the quality and speed of computer networks increase, so do demands for higher levels of interaction that include voice, graphics, and video exchange in real-time. This growing trend toward richer communications via computer is known as Internet
Conferencing.
Microsoft NetMeeting delivers a complete Internet conferencing solution that combines all of these features and more. It provides a powerful, integrated package that offers standards-based data, audio, and video conferencing. Users of NetMeeting can communicate and collaborate with other users in real-time over the Internet or an intranet. Third-party vendors can use the NetMeeting platform to integrate its conferencing features into their own products and services.
While some may believe Internet Conferencing presents new challenges for individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing, Microsoft believes it can create unique, new opportunities. Internet Telephony, a subset of Internet Conferencing, is now no longer restricted to voice communications. It comprises a variety of rich multimedia communications, which combine the power of the PC with the global reach of the Internet to allow individuals to interact as never before. For individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing, Microsoft NetMeeting can serve as a valuable tool to help communicate more effectively with others in the workplace, the classroom, and the home.
NetMeeting delivers the following key benefits to individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing:
Richer real-time communications. Individuals are no longer limited to just text-based communication. With NetMeeting they can now communicate using multimedia graphics and text.
Multipoint communications. No longer are individuals limited to communicating with only one other person.
Users of NetMeeting can communicate and collaborate with multiple users simultaneously. Instead of two people talking with the TTY, you can have several talking together with NetMeeting.
Improved communications. The chat capability of NetMeeting offers bi-directional communications that is faster than that available with a TTY device, and that lets you save conversation transcripts for easy review, editing or re-use.
Go anywhere portable communications.
With NetMeeting on your laptop computer and dial-up access to the Internet, you can travel and communicate at any time anywhere around the world. Now you can communicate in real-time with family, friends, and colleagues without them needing to purchase a TTY device.
Works with existing hardware. NetMeeting is designed to work with PC hardware you have today - it requires a minimum of a 486-based PC. The data conferencing features of NetMeeting require no additional hardware. NetMeeting supports standard modems, so the user can take advantage of the latest modem advancements. Generally, TTY-compatible modems lag considerably behind the state-of-the-art in modem technology.
Overview of the Features of NetMeeting
NetMeeting delivers a rich set of data conferencing features that allow users to communicate with text and graphics based on the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) T.120 standard for multipoint data conferencing. Multipoint means that two or more people can connect together to form a conference, where they can all interact. Some key advantages of the use of data conferencing to communicate is that there is no additional hardware that you need to purchase - you don't need a sound card, microphone, or speakers, and you don't need a video camera, - and it works well over a dial-up modem connection to the Internet. The data conferencing tools that NetMeeting offers include the following, each of which is described in more detail below:
Text-Based Chat
Electronic whiteboard
Native Application Sharing, allowing users to share applications running on one computer with others in a conference for real-time collaboration
File Transfer
Video Conferencing
The information in this section provides a brief overview of the data conferencing features of NetMeeting. More detailed information can be found at http://www.microsoft.com/windows/netmeeting/.
Text-Based Chat
The chat feature provides real-time text communication across the Internet, a corporate intranet, or a school network. With it, two or more users can gather together as part of a virtual meeting and send text messages to one another, allowing communication in real-time. The contents of a chat session can be saved as a transcript for easy review, editing or re-use. For an individual who is deaf or hard-of-hearing, the chat feature serves as the core means of communicating through NetMeeting. It can allow more flexibility and independence than a TTY because:
It can transfer information at a greater speed.
It allows simultaneous communication with multiple users.
A NetMeeting user can interact with anyone who has access to a computer and modem, improving communications with others, whether or not they are deaf.
Chat can be used in conjunction with the other features of NetMeeting to greatly expand the communication possibilities beyond the use of text alone.
Electronic Whiteboard
The electronic whiteboard capability in NetMeeting lets users share, draw, and annotate images with other people as part of a virtual meeting. Rather than communicating via text alone, the whiteboard can allow you to visually communicate about common topics and ideas. For example, you can show pre-existing drawings or pictures while chatting, and create ad hoc diagrams in real-time. It helps you get your ideas across when words alone are not enough.
Native Application Sharing and Collaboration
NetMeeting enables users to share a Windows-based application with other participants in a conference, allowing them to view the same application information on their screens. They can collaborate by making changes to shared information. For example, the native application-sharing feature of NetMeeting allows users to share a word processing application to collaboratively edit the same document at the same time. Traditionally, electronic mail has been used to send documents to different people to obtain changes. However, this process is very repetitive and often takes longer than working on the document simultaneously. Since virtually any Windows-based application can be shared for real-time collaboration, NetMeeting also serves as a valuable aid in situations such as distance learning and technical support.
File Transfer
NetMeeting provides a convenient method of sending files to other conference participants. During a conference, a user can send one or more files to all participants in the conference, or to a selected individual. For example, simply dragging and dropping the desired file into the NetMeeting window will send the file to all participants. This can be useful after making changes to a shared document using the native application-sharing feature. The final version can be sent to all conference participants before concluding the conference.
Video Conferencing
NetMeeting also offers video conferencing capability over the Internet or an intranet. If a camera is connected to your computer, the video conferencing feature allows another person in the conference to see you. You don't need a camera on your computer to see video that is sent by another user. The performance and quality of the video will vary depending on the speed of the PC, type of video camera, speed of the network connection, and amount of network traffic. You will probably find video performance inadequate for transmitting sign language over a dial-up modem connection, but you may find the performance reasonable over an intranet. Over a dial-up connection, you can still use the video capability to enhance your communications by being able to see the person you are communicating with. You can even copy a video image to the clipboard to paste into another Windows-based application (e.g., the Whiteboard in NetMeeting).
How Can the Features of NetMeeting Be Used?
The combination of the features of NetMeeting can provide enhanced communication capability in a variety of environments, including at work, in school, and at home. This section provides a few sample scenarios and usage suggestions to understand the power of NetMeeting. The uses described for one environment may have similar utility in other parts of one's life, and the examples presented in this section are by no means exhaustive.
NetMeeting at Work
NetMeeting can be used to enhance communications in the workplace, making all users more productive. Examples of how it can benefit individuals with disabilities include:
Virtual meetings. Arrange virtual meetings quickly with one or more people in the same or different offices without having to worry about special accommodations.
Enhanced teamwork. Collaborate with others no matter where they are, or how they communicate. For example, a lawyer who is deaf can collaborate on a legal document with another person who is in a different city, whether or not that person is deaf.
Remote training and distance learning. Participate in training from a remote location and save transcripts of chat sessions and whiteboard images on your own computer. The native application-sharing feature can be used to conduct presentations or product training sessions.
Technical support. You can assist others, or receive assistance, in setting up new software or learning a new feature in your old software using the native application sharing of NetMeeting.
Customer support. Exchange real-time information with organizations or services that do not have a TTY, without having to use a telephone relay service. The time lag involved in translating from TTY to voice and back again can be reduced or eliminated, and problems of accuracy in communication can be improved. This may be especially helpful during the discussion of certain subjects, such as technical, medical, or job-specific matters, when the relay operator may not be familiar with the terminology involved.
NetMeeting at School
NetMeeting has tremendous potential for helping to improve communications at school. For example:
Virtual training. Students can participate in virtual discussions, real-time exercises, and
distance-learning scenarios with other students or with the teacher.
Real-time collaboration. Students can collaborate together with other students to work on a common project, or collaborate with teachers directly for special education needs.
NetMeeting at Home
At home, NetMeeting helps improve communications between family and friends over the Internet. You can connect with people you know to:
Keep in touch with friends and family. The real-time chat feature helps you keep in touch with family and friends, whether or not they are deaf. You can even communicate more effectively than using a telephone by using the chat feature in conjunction with the whiteboard to share a picture you took with a digital camera, or scanned into your computer with a desktop scanner.
Talk to several people in different places at once. You can conduct a virtual family reunion, or communicate with friends and family dispersed geographically.
Use the Internet to communicate with businesses. You can communicate in real-time with businesses using NetMeeting to conduct transactions or to obtain additional information. For example, you could use NetMeeting to communicate with your doctor, or with the customer service desk of a business to obtain assistance.
How Can NetMeeting Benefit Users With Other Disabilities?
NetMeeting's features are also useful for people with other disabilities. Some benefits include:
The ability to quickly establish accessible virtual meetings, classes and discussions to bring people in different locations together who otherwise would not be able to meet in person.
Real-time voice communications can be used to enhance text communications and collaborations. This allows you to speak to another user over the Internet with voice as an alternative to using chat.
Users who are blind or deaf-blind, and others who rely on screen reading software and/or Braille displays, can use the collaboration features of NetMeeting. Because of the way NetMeeting displays information to the screen, however, such users must be the ones who open the document or application on their own computer and share it with others in the conference. In this way, their software is directly monitoring the application in question, and detecting changes that are made.
NetMeeting has full keyboard access, and thus is navigable by people who don't use a mouse. For example: to take control of a shared application without a mouse, a user can press any key on the keyboard; if somebody is in control of an app while you're collaborating, pressing ESC will remove you from collaboration mode; a user can switch between local and shared applications by using the ALT-Tab task switch sequence, etc.
How to Obtain NetMeeting
NetMeeting is a core component of Internet Explorer 4.0, and will be incorporated into future releases of the Windows operating system. In addition, you can download NetMeeting from http://www.microsoft.com/windows/netmeeting/.
The Microsoft Internet Locator Server (ILS) provides a dynamic directory service that may be deployed on the Internet or a company's intranet by a network administrator to make it easy for a community of NetMeeting users to find and connect to each other. While you can use one of the many servers currently deployed on the Internet, setting up your own ILS may make it easier for people in your organization to find and connect to each other. The ILS runs on top of the Microsoft Internet Information Server. You can find additional information about ILS and download it from the Internet at no charge from http://www.microsoft.com/windows/netmeeting/.
For Additional Information
For additional information about NetMeeting, the features it offers, and how others are using it, visit http://www.microsoft.com/windows/netmeeting/.
For more information about how computers can benefit people with disabilities, and how Microsoft products and services are helping make this possible, visit www.microsoft.com/enable/
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{
Introduction
For years now, computer networks such as the Internet have been carrying text-based messages around the world. Most often, these messages take the form of electronic mail, though real-time chat programs are also used. As the quality and speed of computer networks increase, so do demands for higher levels of interaction that include voice, graphics, and video exchange in real-time. This growing trend toward richer communications via computer is known as Internet
Conferencing.
Microsoft NetMeeting delivers a complete Internet conferencing solution that combines all of these features and more. It provides a powerful, integrated package that offers standards-based data, audio, and video conferencing. Users of NetMeeting can communicate and collaborate with other users in real-time over the Internet or an intranet. Third-party vendors can use the NetMeeting platform to integrate its conferencing features into their own products and services.
While some may believe Internet Conferencing presents new challenges for individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing, Microsoft believes it can create unique, new opportunities. Internet Telephony, a subset of Internet Conferencing, is now no longer restricted to voice communications. It comprises a variety of rich multimedia communications, which combine the power of the PC with the global reach of the Internet to allow individuals to interact as never before. For individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing, Microsoft NetMeeting can serve as a valuable tool to help communicate more effectively with others in the workplace, the classroom, and the home.
NetMeeting delivers the following key benefits to individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing:
Richer real-time communications. Individuals are no longer limited to just text-based communication. With NetMeeting they can now communicate using multimedia graphics and text.
Multipoint communications. No longer are individuals limited to communicating with only one other person.
Users of NetMeeting can communicate and collaborate with multiple users simultaneously. Instead of two people talking with the TTY, you can have several talking together with NetMeeting.
Improved communications. The chat capability of NetMeeting offers bi-directional communications that is faster than that available with a TTY device, and that lets you save conversation transcripts for easy review, editing or re-use.
Go anywhere portable communications.
With NetMeeting on your laptop computer and dial-up access to the Internet, you can travel and communicate at any time anywhere around the world. Now you can communicate in real-time with family, friends, and colleagues without them needing to purchase a TTY device.
Works with existing hardware. NetMeeting is designed to work with PC hardware you have today - it requires a minimum of a 486-based PC. The data conferencing features of NetMeeting require no additional hardware. NetMeeting supports standard modems, so the user can take advantage of the latest modem advancements. Generally, TTY-compatible modems lag considerably behind the state-of-the-art in modem technology.
Overview of the Features of NetMeeting
NetMeeting delivers a rich set of data conferencing features that allow users to communicate with text and graphics based on the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) T.120 standard for multipoint data conferencing. Multipoint means that two or more people can connect together to form a conference, where they can all interact. Some key advantages of the use of data conferencing to communicate is that there is no additional hardware that you need to purchase - you don't need a sound card, microphone, or speakers, and you don't need a video camera, - and it works well over a dial-up modem connection to the Internet. The data conferencing tools that NetMeeting offers include the following, each of which is described in more detail below:
Text-Based Chat
Electronic whiteboard
Native Application Sharing, allowing users to share applications running on one computer with others in a conference for real-time collaboration
File Transfer
Video Conferencing
The information in this section provides a brief overview of the data conferencing features of NetMeeting. More detailed information can be found at http://www.microsoft.com/windows/netmeeting/.
Text-Based Chat
The chat feature provides real-time text communication across the Internet, a corporate intranet, or a school network. With it, two or more users can gather together as part of a virtual meeting and send text messages to one another, allowing communication in real-time. The contents of a chat session can be saved as a transcript for easy review, editing or re-use. For an individual who is deaf or hard-of-hearing, the chat feature serves as the core means of communicating through NetMeeting. It can allow more flexibility and independence than a TTY because:
It can transfer information at a greater speed.
It allows simultaneous communication with multiple users.
A NetMeeting user can interact with anyone who has access to a computer and modem, improving communications with others, whether or not they are deaf.
Chat can be used in conjunction with the other features of NetMeeting to greatly expand the communication possibilities beyond the use of text alone.
Electronic Whiteboard
The electronic whiteboard capability in NetMeeting lets users share, draw, and annotate images with other people as part of a virtual meeting. Rather than communicating via text alone, the whiteboard can allow you to visually communicate about common topics and ideas. For example, you can show pre-existing drawings or pictures while chatting, and create ad hoc diagrams in real-time. It helps you get your ideas across when words alone are not enough.
Native Application Sharing and Collaboration
NetMeeting enables users to share a Windows-based application with other participants in a conference, allowing them to view the same application information on their screens. They can collaborate by making changes to shared information. For example, the native application-sharing feature of NetMeeting allows users to share a word processing application to collaboratively edit the same document at the same time. Traditionally, electronic mail has been used to send documents to different people to obtain changes. However, this process is very repetitive and often takes longer than working on the document simultaneously. Since virtually any Windows-based application can be shared for real-time collaboration, NetMeeting also serves as a valuable aid in situations such as distance learning and technical support.
File Transfer
NetMeeting provides a convenient method of sending files to other conference participants. During a conference, a user can send one or more files to all participants in the conference, or to a selected individual. For example, simply dragging and dropping the desired file into the NetMeeting window will send the file to all participants. This can be useful after making changes to a shared document using the native application-sharing feature. The final version can be sent to all conference participants before concluding the conference.
Video Conferencing
NetMeeting also offers video conferencing capability over the Internet or an intranet. If a camera is connected to your computer, the video conferencing feature allows another person in the conference to see you. You don't need a camera on your computer to see video that is sent by another user. The performance and quality of the video will vary depending on the speed of the PC, type of video camera, speed of the network connection, and amount of network traffic. You will probably find video performance inadequate for transmitting sign language over a dial-up modem connection, but you may find the performance reasonable over an intranet. Over a dial-up connection, you can still use the video capability to enhance your communications by being able to see the person you are communicating with. You can even copy a video image to the clipboard to paste into another Windows-based application (e.g., the Whiteboard in NetMeeting).
How Can the Features of NetMeeting Be Used?
The combination of the features of NetMeeting can provide enhanced communication capability in a variety of environments, including at work, in school, and at home. This section provides a few sample scenarios and usage suggestions to understand the power of NetMeeting. The uses described for one environment may have similar utility in other parts of one's life, and the examples presented in this section are by no means exhaustive.
NetMeeting at Work
NetMeeting can be used to enhance communications in the workplace, making all users more productive. Examples of how it can benefit individuals with disabilities include:
Virtual meetings. Arrange virtual meetings quickly with one or more people in the same or different offices without having to worry about special accommodations.
Enhanced teamwork. Collaborate with others no matter where they are, or how they communicate. For example, a lawyer who is deaf can collaborate on a legal document with another person who is in a different city, whether or not that person is deaf.
Remote training and distance learning. Participate in training from a remote location and save transcripts of chat sessions and whiteboard images on your own computer. The native application-sharing feature can be used to conduct presentations or product training sessions.
Technical support. You can assist others, or receive assistance, in setting up new software or learning a new feature in your old software using the native application sharing of NetMeeting.
Customer support. Exchange real-time information with organizations or services that do not have a TTY, without having to use a telephone relay service. The time lag involved in translating from TTY to voice and back again can be reduced or eliminated, and problems of accuracy in communication can be improved. This may be especially helpful during the discussion of certain subjects, such as technical, medical, or job-specific matters, when the relay operator may not be familiar with the terminology involved.
NetMeeting at School
NetMeeting has tremendous potential for helping to improve communications at school. For example:
Virtual training. Students can participate in virtual discussions, real-time exercises, and
distance-learning scenarios with other students or with the teacher.
Real-time collaboration. Students can collaborate together with other students to work on a common project, or collaborate with teachers directly for special education needs.
NetMeeting at Home
At home, NetMeeting helps improve communications between family and friends over the Internet. You can connect with people you know to:
Keep in touch with friends and family. The real-time chat feature helps you keep in touch with family and friends, whether or not they are deaf. You can even communicate more effectively than using a telephone by using the chat feature in conjunction with the whiteboard to share a picture you took with a digital camera, or scanned into your computer with a desktop scanner.
Talk to several people in different places at once. You can conduct a virtual family reunion, or communicate with friends and family dispersed geographically.
Use the Internet to communicate with businesses. You can communicate in real-time with businesses using NetMeeting to conduct transactions or to obtain additional information. For example, you could use NetMeeting to communicate with your doctor, or with the customer service desk of a business to obtain assistance.
How Can NetMeeting Benefit Users With Other Disabilities?
NetMeeting's features are also useful for people with other disabilities. Some benefits include:
The ability to quickly establish accessible virtual meetings, classes and discussions to bring people in different locations together who otherwise would not be able to meet in person.
Real-time voice communications can be used to enhance text communications and collaborations. This allows you to speak to another user over the Internet with voice as an alternative to using chat.
Users who are blind or deaf-blind, and others who rely on screen reading software and/or Braille displays, can use the collaboration features of NetMeeting. Because of the way NetMeeting displays information to the screen, however, such users must be the ones who open the document or application on their own computer and share it with others in the conference. In this way, their software is directly monitoring the application in question, and detecting changes that are made.
NetMeeting has full keyboard access, and thus is navigable by people who don't use a mouse. For example: to take control of a shared application without a mouse, a user can press any key on the keyboard; if somebody is in control of an app while you're collaborating, pressing ESC will remove you from collaboration mode; a user can switch between local and shared applications by using the ALT-Tab task switch sequence, etc.
How to Obtain NetMeeting
NetMeeting is a core component of Internet Explorer 4.0, and will be incorporated into future releases of the Windows operating system. In addition, you can download NetMeeting from http://www.microsoft.com/windows/netmeeting/.
The Microsoft Internet Locator Server (ILS) provides a dynamic directory service that may be deployed on the Internet or a company's intranet by a network administrator to make it easy for a community of NetMeeting users to find and connect to each other. While you can use one of the many servers currently deployed on the Internet, setting up your own ILS may make it easier for people in your organization to find and connect to each other. The ILS runs on top of the Microsoft Internet Information Server. You can find additional information about ILS and download it from the Internet at no charge from http://www.microsoft.com/windows/netmeeting/.
For Additional Information
For additional information about NetMeeting, the features it offers, and how others are using it, visit http://www.microsoft.com/windows/netmeeting/.
For more information about how computers can benefit people with disabilities, and how Microsoft products and services are helping make this possible, visit www.microsoft.com/enable/
martes, 4 de noviembre de 2008
RESUMEN OPERACIONES DE EXPORTOTACION
1. TRÀMITES TRIBUTARIOS
Los primeros pasos que tienen que realizar un exportador es darse de alta en el Registro de Exportadores y, una vez iniciada la actividad, presentar la declaración censal de inicio de operaciones. Son trámites puramente burocráticos, pero necesarios, ya que el primer es requisito indispensable si se quiere exigir, más adelante el derecho de la devolución del IVA, y el segundo se exige para cualquier modificación en la actividad exportadora o en el cese, si se da el caso.Para obtener la declaración censal y registrarse, se tiene que rellenar el impreso 036 y presentarlo en la Delegación de Hacienda correspondiente al domicilio fiscal de la empresa.Los impuestos que un exportador tiene que tener en cuenta son:
- El IVA.- Impuestos especiales.
- El IAE (impuesto sobre actividades económicas.
1.1 El IVA
El IVA es un tributo de carácter indirecto que recae sobre el consumo y que grava las entrega de bienes, las prestaciones de servicios realizados por empresas o profesionales y las importaciones de bienes y servicios.El ámbito de aplicación del impuesto queda limitado al territorio peninsular español y a las Islas Baleares. No quedan incluidas las Islas Canarias, Ceuta y Melilla.
Exenciones del IVA
Para que las mercancías españolas puedan acceder a mercados internacionales en las mismas condiciones que las procedentes de otros países se desgrava el IVA soportado en España.
Están exentas de IVA las siguientes operaciones:
a) Exportaciones intracomunitarias: para que una operación iniciada en un país miembro de la Comunidad y finalizada en otro país también miembro de la Comunidad no tribute dos veces, las entregas intracomunitarias están exentas.
· Las entregas de bienes transportados, por el vendedor, por el comprador o por un tercero en nombre de cualquiera de los anteriores a otro estado miembro, siempre que el comprador sea:- Un empresario o profesional identificado a efectos del IVA en otro estado miembro diferente a España.- Una persona jurídica que no actúa como empresario o profesional, pero que está identificada a efectos del IVA en otro estado miembro.
· Las entregas de medios de transporte nuevos realizados en las mismas condiciones que en el caso anterior, pero cuando el comprador sea una persona que tenga sus adquisiciones no sujetas al impuesto o tengan la condición de empresario o profesional.
· Las operaciones asimiladas a las entregas de bienes (como son las entregas realizadas en el marco de las relaciones diplomáticas, o dirigidas a organismos internacionales…).
b) Exportaciones al resto del mundo:
· Las entregas de bienes transportados fuera de la Unión Europea por el exportador o por un tercero en nombre y por cuenta del exportador.
· Las entregas de bienes transportados fuera de la Unión Europea por el comprador por un tercero en nombre y por cuenta del comprador.
· Las compras de los viajeros siempre que no sean una expedición comercial, que sean entregas documentadas con una factura con un importe superior a 90,15 €.
· Las compras efectuadas a tiendas libres de impuestos.
· Las prestaciones de servicios, incluidas las de transporte, cuando estén directamente relacionadas con la exportación de bienes fuera del territorio de la Unión Europea.
No están incluidas como prestaciones de servicios y, por lo tanto, tienen que pagar IVA:
- El transporte desde el lugar de la producción hasta el lugar donde será envasado.
- El servicio prestado por abogados de asesoramiento.
- La entrega de Embalajes.
· Las operaciones en zonas exentas depósitos francos y aduaneros
.Deducciones del IVA
Ya que las operaciones de exportación y las entregas intracomunitarias están exentas del pago del IVA, los sujetos pasivos pueden deducir de las cuotas del IVA repercutidas aquellas soportadas en les fases anteriores de producción y comercialización de los bienes objeto de estas operaciones.Se tienen que cumplir un conjunto de requisitos, como que:
· El sujeto pasivo tiene que haber presentado la declaración censal.
· Tiene que poseer un documento que justifique el derecho de deducción, como podría ser la factura original.
Devolución del IVA
Los sujetos pasivos que no hayan podido efectuar las deducciones porque eran superiores a las cuotas ameritadas, tienen derecho a solicitar la devolución del IVA deducible en la declaración-liquidación del periodo en que se ha soportado.La devolución del IVA se hace cada 31 de diciembre, a no ser que los exportadores se puedan acoger al régimen especial de devolución establecido en el artículo 116 de la ley del IVA.
Estos exportadores tienen derecho a hacer la declaración mensualmente en lugar de trimestralmente y a pedir la devolución del IVA también al final de cada mes. También se puede escoger entre la devolución cada final de año o la compensación con el resultado del año siguiente.Los sujetos que hayan realizado operaciones exentas en las exportaciones de bienes durante el año natural anterior o durante el año en curso con un valor superior a 120.202,4 € (20 millones de pesetas) también tienen derecho a la devolución al final de cada año, con el límite del 16% del importe total de las operaciones de este período. La tramitación se tiene que realizar en la administración o delegación de la Agencia Estatal de la Administración Tributaria correspondiente al domicilio fiscal de la empresa.
1.2 IMPUESTOS ESPECIALES
Los impuestos especiales son unos impuestos de tipo indirecto que recaen sobre el consumo de determinados bienes. Los principales impuestos especiales son los que graban las bebidas alcohólicas. Los hidrocarburos, el tabaco, la electricidad y determinados medios de transporte.
El pago del impuesto queda en suspensión cuando la salida del producto se destina
a:· Otras fábricas o depósitos, o a la exportación(fuera de la Unión Europea).· Fabricar productos no objetos de impuestos especiales destinados a la exportación.Los objetos sujetos del impuesto adquiridos por un particular de otro estado miembro no están sujetos al impuesto, siempre que se satisfaga en el país de adquisición o que su destino sea para uso personal.Tienen derecho a la devolución de este impuesto los exportadores:- De productos que en su producción hayan consumido otros sujetos de este impuesto( exceptuando los hidrocarburos). - Que ya hayan pagado este impuesto.- Los bienes no sujetos que contengan otros bienes sí sujetos al impuesto, siempre que estos últimos sea una proporción superior al 3% de su volumen o peso.
1.3 IMPUESTO SOBRE LAS ACTIVIDADES ECONÒMICAS
Este es un impuesto de tipo local que recae sobre las actividades profesionales y empresariales que tienen que satisfacer, de forma obligatoria, tanto las sociedades como los empresarios individuales.Si es la primera vez que se exporta conviene confirmar o ampliar la licencia fiscal en el epígrafe correspondiente a este impuesto. La tramitación se lleva a cabo en la Administración o Delegación de la Agencia de la Administración Tributaria.
2. TRÁMITES ADUANEROS
2.1 ARANCEL
El arancel es una medida economicofiscal de protección hacia el exterior. Está compuesto por dos partes: la nomenclatura arancelaria y la tarifa.
La nomenclatura arancelaria es la clasificación sistemática de las mercancías, que se realiza mediante el código establecido en el sistema armonizado y en la nomenclatura combinada.El sistema armonizado clasifica las mercancías en una serie de partidas y subpartidas y les asigna un código de cuatro cifras.La tarifa arancelaria es el gravamen o derecho que se aplica a las mercancías según sea su clasificación a través de la nomenclatura combinada.Hay otro instrumento que es el arancel integrado o TARIC que recoge las preferencias arancelarias, los contingentes, las restricciones cuantitativas y los códigos arancelarios que se aplican a las suspensiones temporales de los productos agrícolas e industriales. La exportación no está gravada con los derechos de aduana, ya que la Unión Europea quiere incentivarla. Sólo se grava en el caso que se pueda ocasionar un problema de abstención en el propio país.Para saber el arancel aplicable, el exportador se puede poner en contacto con el departamento aduanero de la Agencia Tributaria, enviando un fax con la descripción del producto que quien exportar. Allí le informaran del código arancelario al que pertenece el producto que exporta y la documentación que tiene que presentar.
2.2 DEUDA ADUANERA
La deuda aduanera es la obligación que tiene una persona de pagar los derechos de exportación aplicados a una determinada mercancía según las disposiciones comunitarias vigentes.La deuda aduanera nace de las siguientes operaciones:- Para la exportación fuera del territorio aduanero de la Unión Europea, con declaración de aduana (mediante el DUA, ver apartado 2.3), de las mercancías sujetas a derechos de exportación.- Cuando se exportan estas mercancías sin formalizar la declaración correspondiente.- Para la exportación de mercancía sujetas a derechos, se exportan a través de una normativa que las exime totalmente o parcialmente, pero no se cumplen todos los requisitos que implica la exención.La comunicación al deudor del importe de los derechos concretos implica la obligación de pago en el plazo de 10 días a partir de la comunicación. El plazo se puede prorrogar hasta a 30 días, condicionado a que haya el depósito de una garantía por parte del interesado.
2.3 DOCUMENTO ÚNICO ADMINISTRATIVO (DUA)
La exportación de mercancías es una de las actividades que los países quieren fomentar y es por eso que se lleva a cabo la supresión de algunos controles y documentos. Para la exportación de mercancías sólo se tiene que presentar el DUA.El DUA (documento único administrativo) es un documento administrativo necesario para el cumplimiento de las formalidades aduaneras requeridas para las operaciones de intercambio de mercancías. Por otra parte, sirve como base para la declaración tributaria y constituye un soporte de información.Con la eliminación de las fronteras dentro de la Unión Europea, el DUA sirve exclusivamente para la obtención de datos en los intercambios con países terceros de fuera de la Unión Europea.
Es necesario para las siguientes operaciones:1. Mercancías no comunitarias:- Para su despacho a la libre practica o consumo.- Para su inclusión cualquier otro régimen aduanero, incluido el de tránsito comunitario.- Para su reexportación fuera del territorio aduanero de la UE.2. Mercancías comunitarias- Para su exportación.- Para la circulación de mercancías por el territorio aduanero comunitario de mercancías previamente despachadas a la exportación en otro estado miembro diferente al de salida efectiva.3. Productos de la pesca de alta mar.4. Mercancías procedentes de cualquier lugar, que se despachan a la importación o exportación a Ceuta o Melilla.5. En otros casos en que la normativa comunitaria así lo disponga.
El DUA está compuesto por nueve ejemplares, los tres primeros tienen que rellenarse por un estado miembro de la expedición y los restantes por el país miembro de destinación. Para la exportación sólo son necesarios los siguientes:- Ejemplar número 1: para la aduana de expedición.- Ejemplar número 2: para la elaboración de la estadística exterior.- Ejemplar número 3: para el interesado, como prueba del despacho y salida o para pedir la salida por una aduana diferente a la del despacho Además, puede ser un justificante de la exportación a efectos del IVA o de impuestos especiales.- Ejemplar número 4: se presenta cuando es necesario justificar el carácter comunitario delante de las aduanas.- Ejemplar número 9: es el resguardo fiscal y se utiliza como autorización de salida de las mercancías. Juntamente con el DUA hace falta adjuntar:- Factura comercial de venta o adquisición (ver Pág.. 14).- Documento de transporte (ver Pág.. 16 y siguientes).- Certificado de recepción.- Origen de la mercancía (ver Pág.. 13).- Medidas específicas de política comercial (ver Pág.. 10).- Régimen fiscal: nacional (IVA e impuestos especiales) y comunitario (derechos de exportación).- Lista de contenido (ver Pág.. 16).- Otros documentos que solicite a la aduana.La declaración de despacho se tiene que presentar en la oficina de la aduana correspondiente al país donde se inicia la exportación. En el caso que la declaración esté incompleta se da el plazo de un mes para aportar los datos que faltan.La aduana puede permitir la presentación de declaraciones que no lleven adjuntos algunos de los documentos necesarios para su despacho. Hace falta justificar que los documentos existen y que no se han podido presentar por causas ajenas al solicitante.Con la supresión del DUA en las operaciones intracomunitarias, se ha creado el Intrastat (ver apartado 2.4), que tiene carácter obligatorio entre las personas físicas o jurídicas que realizan intercambios en la UE.2.4 INTRASTATEs un documento que sirve para obtener información sobre el comercio entre los países comunitarios. Cualquier persona jurídica o física residente en el país miembro de la expedición o país de llegada que intervenga en una operación comercial entre estados miembros, tiene que dar información estadística mediante declaraciones periódicas, que se pueden presentar en papel o de forma magnética y que se tienen que transmitir de forma obligatoria a la oficina del Intrastat.En función del valor de las expediciones efectuadas existen tres tipos de declaraciones:- Declaración detallada: cuando el volumen de comercio es superior a 96.161,14 €. Modelo N-E para las entregas.- Declaración simplificada: cuando el volumen de comercio es superior a 36.060,73 €, pero sin exceder de 96.038,41 €. Modelo S-E para entregas.- Declaración de IVA con efectos estadísticos: cuando el volumen de comercio sea inferior a 36.060,73 €. No existe declaración estadística individualizada y las obligaciones estadísticas es cumplen mediante la presentación de la declaración recapitularia necesaria a efectos de IVA intracomunitario (modelo 349). El período de referencia es mensual y las declaraciones se tienen que presentar la primera semana del mes siguiente.Para más información:Oficina información INTRASTAT.
2.5 RÈGIMEN ESPECIAL PARA DETERMINADAS MERCANCIAS
En la UE se ha creado una serie de normas especiales de aplicación para la exportación de determinados productos:
1. Material de defensa, productos y tecnología de doble uso: Hace falta la obtención de una autorización administrativa de exportación especial, así como la inscripción en el Registro Especial de Exportadores.Tramitación y más información:Subdirección General de Comercio Exterior de Material de Defensa y de Doble uso.
2. Sustancias catalogadas susceptibles de desvío:Para determinadas sustancies con las que se pueden fabricar drogas tóxicas, estupefacientes y productos psicotròpicos, es necesario un permiso de exportación especial. Este permiso se tiene que presentar al menos 15 días antes de la presentación del DUA.Las substancias químicas susceptibles de desviación están sujetas a la obtención de una licencia individual de exportación de sustancias químicas catalogadas.Tramitación y más información:Departamento de Aduanes e Impuestos Especiales de la Agencia Estatal de la Administración Tributaria
3. Productos psicotrópicos y estupefacientes:Las sustancias, medicamentos o preparaciones que es consideren estupefacientes están sometidos a autorización previa de la autoridad sanitaria y a control por parte de la aduana. Estas mercancías tienen que ser presentadas en la aduana junto con su permiso sanitario expedido por la dirección General de la salud Publica..Tramitación y más información:Dirección General de la Salud Pública
4. Productos químicos peligrosos:Teniendo en cuenta el peligro que supone su uso y transporte, existen determinadas medidas de control. En España es necesario comunicar a la Subdirección General de Sanidad Ambiental la voluntad de exportarlos a países terceros. Tramitación y más información:Subdirección General de Sanidad Ambiental
5. Bienes culturales:Para controlar las salidas del territorio español de bienes culturales calificados como bienes del patrimonio histórico español, es necesaria la autorización previa de la Dirección General de Bellas Artes.Tramitación y más información:Dirección General de Bellas Artes y Archivos (Ministerio de Educación y Cultura)Servicio de Gestión del Patrimonio Cultural (Departamento de Cultura)
2.6 LICÈNCIA A LA EXPORTACIÓN
Entre las mercancías sujetas a vigilancia administrativa previa, hay una serie de mercancías sometidas a restricciones nacionales (tienen que presentar la Autorización administrativa de exportación, ver apartado 2.7) y otras mercancías sometidas a restricciones comunitarias(tienen que presentar la licencia de exportación).La licencia de exportación es una autorización oficial para cubrir las exportaciones sujetas a este requisito. Es pueden estregar automáticamente a petición de un exportador o en forma de una autorización previa, en los casos en que se quiera limitar las exportaciones de determinadas mercancías. También será una autorización en los casos en que se tengan que respetar acuerdos bilaterales o multilaterales de comercio.Tramitación y más información:Secretaria General de Comercio Exterior
2.7 AUTORIZACIÓN ADMINISTRATIVA DE EXPORTACIÓN
Este documento es necesario para la exportación de algunas mercancías sometidas a algún tipo de restricción cuantitativa derivada de la aplicación de una política comunitaria o sometidas a un contingente cuantitativo anual.
Hay dos tipos de autorización administrativa:
- El documento utilizado para la exportación por operación (AAEO): Permite realizar una o diversas expediciones de la mercancía hasta una cantidad máxima previamente fijada, con destino a un único comprador y a través de una aduana específica.
- El documento global de exportación (AAGE): se utiliza para las exportaciones que por las características del mercado, o por el carácter no durador de la mercancía, tienen carácter continuo. Esta autorización permite un numero determinado de exportaciones a uno o diversos destinatarios mediante una o más aduanas y en un plazo concreto.En el caso de ser necesaria la autorización de forma inmediata, hace falta presentar una solicitud de autorización de despacho telegráfico de exportación. De esta forma, la Dirección General de Comercio Exterior realiza más rápidamente el estudio de la situación y lleva a cabo la declaración de aduana.Este documento se entrega de forma discrecional por la Dirección General de Comercio Exterior y su validez es de 6 meses.Tramitación y más información:Secretaria General de Comercio Exterior
2.8 CERTIFICADOS
En función del país de destinación y del producto exportado, se exigen una serie de documentos complementarios que tienen que acompañar la mercancía.CERTIFICADO DE EXPORTACIÓN (AGREX)La finalidad de este certificado es prefijar las restituciones a la exportación de determinados productos. El certificado autoriza y obliga a exportar durante un periodo de tiempo fijado la cantidad indicada del producto.El exportador tiene que depositar un aval para garantizar que se realizará la exportación. Puede ser en metálico, mediante garantía bancaria, y se publica en el Diario Oficial de la Comunidad Europea en euros o unidades. Hay que consultar el plazo de validez de este certificado ya que estaría en función del producto.Tramitación y más información:Dirección Territorial de Comercio
CUADERNOS ATA
Son documentos aduaneros internacionales que permiten la importación y la exportación temporal de mercancías sin pagar ni financiar derechos aduaneros. Sólo sirve para las siguientes mercancías:
- Instrumento0s profesionales: material publicitario y equipamiento que se usa para radio, televisión, prensa…
- Muestras con valor comercial para exhibir en otros países durante viajes, ferias o exposiciones.Estas mercancías se tienen que reimportar al país de origen en el plazo indicado (normalmente un año).Tramitación:Cámara Oficial de Comercio, Industria y Navegación
CERTIFICADO DE SANIDAD EXTERIOR
Es un documento exigido por el comprador para conocer las condiciones sanitarias del producto. Su expedición la realiza el Departamento de Sanidad.Mas información y tramitación:Departamento de Sanidad de la Generalitat de Cataluña
CERTIFICADO FITOSANITARIO
Es un documento de control y lucha contra las plagas. Determinados productos vegetales y otros objetos relacionados con ellos tienen que ir acompañados del su correspondiente pasaporte fitosanitario en el momento de la expedición.En el caso de ser exigido por el importador, el exportador lo puede obtener en el Departamento de Agricultura.Más información y tramitación:Departamento de Agricultura de la Generalitat de Cataluña
CERTIFICADO VETERINARIO
Este documento es necesario para evitar el riesgo de propagar enfermedades infecciosas y contagiosas existentes en la ganadería española. Tiene que acompañar a los animales vivos y a los productos de origen animal.Más información y tramitación:Departamento de Sanidad de la Generalitat de Cataluña
DOCUMENTO DE ACOMPAÑAMIENTO
Es un documento que tiene que acompañar los productos sujetos a impuestos especiales(tabaco, alcohol,..).En este documento se tienen que indicar los daros personales del expedidor y del destinatario junto con la cantidad , peso, etc., de las mercancías exportadas. Está compuesto de 4 ejemplares, cada uno de los cuales va dirigido al expedidor, destinatario, otro para devolver al expedidor junto con el visado de la autoridad fiscal del estado miembro de destino y el último para las autoridades del país de destino.Más información y tramitación:Departamento de Aduanas e Impuestos Especiales de la Agencia Estatal de la Administración Tributaria
DOCUMENTO DE ACOMPAÑAMIENTO VITIVINÍCOLA
Este documento tiene que acompañar los productos vitivinícolas durante su transporte y es necesario para certificar el origen y la cantidad de los productos exportados y para declarar el lugar de producción de las bebidas espirituosas.Tramitación y más información:Departamento de Agricultura de la Generalitat de Cataluña (para los intercambios comunitarios)Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación (para los intercambios extracomunitarios)Fondo Español de Garantía Agraria (FEGA)
CERTIFICADO CATICE
Es un certificado de control y de inspección oficial de una serie de productos alimentarios, incluidos en la Orden ministerial del 24 de febrero del 1995. Se exige como garantía del cumplimiento de las normas de calidad, de las especificaciones comerciales y de las relacionadas con los envases y embalajes.Más información y tramitación:Subdirección General de Inspección, Certificación y Asistencia Técnica (CATICE)
CERTIFICADO CITES
La Convención sobre el Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y Flora Silvestres persigue la regulación del comercio de animales, plantas salvajes y de los productos que se obtienen con ellos por salvaguardar ciertas especies en extinción.Para los productos objeto de este régimen, se exige un certificado de exportación visado por los Centros de Inspección de Comercio Exterior.Más información y tramitación:Subdirección General de Inspección, Certificación y Asistencia Técnica (CATICE)
CERTIFICADO DE ORIGEN
Es un documento que acredita al país de origen de la mercancía. Es expedido por les cámaras de comercio del país exportador, previo escrito de solicitud acompañado de la factura comercial. Se exige por motivos de política comercial y para así aplicar los derechos aduaneros que correspondan. Cuando la mercancía no está totalmente fabricada al país, cal especificar a los elementos extranjeros que porten incorporados, así con su origen.Tramitación y más información:Cámara Oficial de Comercio, Industria y Navegación
CERTIFICADO DE CIRCULACIÓN
Es el documento que sustituye el certificado de origen en los países de la Unión Europea para los intercambios con países con los que se mantienen acuerdos comerciales.Los documentos son l'EUR-1 o l'EUR-2 (en el caso d'expediciones postales o envíos inferiores a 2.820 €, 469.209 pesetas).Tramitación y más información:Departamento Aduanero y Impuestos Especiales de la Agencia Estatal de la Administración Tributaria
CERTIFICADO DE CALIDAD O DE PESO DEL PRODUCTO
Este documento está expedido para quien designe el comprador o para las agencias de aduana que le garantizan que el envío realizado por el vendedor se ajusta a lo contratado.
VISADO CONSULARA
solicitud del importador, hay que visar determinados documentos (factura comercial, certificado de origen…) en el consulado correspondiente.
CARNET TIR
Documento de transporte que da permiso al tránsito de mercancías a través de países no destinatarios de las mercancías, sin ser sometidas a revisiones por parte de las autoridades aduaneras. Se refiere a las mercancías transportadas en camiones herméticos y precintados y evita los múltiples controles y declaraciones aduaneras.Tramitación:Cámara Oficial de Comercio Industria y Navegación y el sindicato de transportes
CARNET TIF
Cumple la misma función que el carnet TIR pero para la circulación por ferrocarril entre los países europeos.Con el establecimiento del mercado único sólo será necesario utilizar el régimen TIF para el tráfico de mercancías con los países que no hayan firmado el acuerdo de tránsito comunitario (principalmente con los países de Europa del Este).
CARNET ECS
Es el documento que permite la circulación de muestras destinadas a feria y exposiciones. Sólo existe para algunos países en los que no se utiliza el cuaderno ATA(ver Pág. 11).
2.9 DOCUMENTOS COMERCIALES
FACTURA PROFORMA
Documento provisional expedido por un futuro exportador, para informar al comprador del precio de la mercancía y de las condiciones en que está dispuesto a hacer la venta. Si no se pacta nada, tiene una validez de tres meses, contados a partir de la notificación al comprador. Su efecto es informativo- Si el comprador la devuelve firmada, se convierte en una prefactura. La presentación de esta factura será necesaria para obtener permisos. FACTURA COMERCIALDocumento que extiende el vendedor, según su propio modelo, donde figura el precio de la mercancía y de las condiciones en las que está dispuesto a realizar la venta. En la mayoría de ocasiones, la factura comercial se utiliza como contrato de venta y forma del cobro de la operación; y por eso, tiene que ser firmado por las dos partes.
A. ELS INCOTERMS
Dentro del contrato se incluyen los Incoterms
: serie de términos que definen con claridad cuales son las obligaciones recíprocas entre compradores y vendedores dentro de un contrato internacional.
Los Incoterms vienen fijados por la Cámara de Comercio Internacional y regulan:
1. La distribución de documentos.
2. Las condiciones de entrega de la mercancía.3
. La distribución de costes de la operación.
4. La distribución de riesgos de la operación.
En cambio, no regulan la forma de pago de la operación ni la legislación aplicable a la operación. Se agrupan en cuatro categorías:
· Grup E (sortida): suposa el mínim d'obligacions per al venedor que posa la mercaderia a disposició del comprador en els seus propis locals.
EXW (a la sortida): l'obligació és lliurar la mercaderia en el local del venedor o en el lloc convingut sense despatxar-la a la duana, ni carregar-la en el vehicle de transport.El comprador és el que té totes les despeses i tots els riscos.
· Grup F (sense pagament del transport principal): el venedor no té les despeses ni els riscos del transport principal. Es lliuren les mercaderies segons les instruccions del venedor.
- FCA (franc a transportista).
- FAS (franc a moll): el venedor compleix amb la seva obligació de lliurament quan la mercaderia ha estat col·locada al costat del vaixell.Los gastos de transporte y seguro son por cuenta del comprador una vez se entrega la mercancía. Solo se utiliza en transporte marítimo.
- FOB (franco en el barco): La obligación del vendedor es la de entregar las mercancías cargadas en el barco. El vendedor se responsabiliza tanto de los trámites de aduana de exportación como de cargar las mercancías en el barco. El comprador paga el flete y el seguro.· Grupo C: el vendedor tiene que contratar el transporte, pero no asume el riesgo de pérdida de la mercadería ni los gastos adicionales debidos a hechos que hayan sucedido después de su carga y despacho.- CFR (coste y flete): el vendedor escoge el barco, paga los gastos y el flete necesario para hacer llegar la mercancía al puerto de destino acordado. El vendedor despacha la mercadería con los trámites aduaneros. Los riesgos pasan a ser des comprador desde que se pone la mercancía en el barco.- CIF (coste, seguro y flete): Las obligaciones del vendedor son las mismas que en el Incoterm CFR, pero además tiene que pagar el seguro de la mercancía durante el transporte.- CPT (puertos pagados hasta): el vendedor paga el flete de mercaderías hasta la destinación fijada. El vendedor es el encargado de los trámites aduaneros para la exportación. Los riesgos de pérdida pasan al comprador en el momento en que la mercancía es entregada al transportista.- CIP (puertos y seguros pagados hasta): el vendedor tiene las mismas obligaciones que en el Incoterm CPT, pero además tiene que pagar el seguro de l transporte de la mercancía.· Grupo D: supone el máximo de las obligaciones para el vendedor que tiene que soportar todos los gastos necesarios para llevar la mercancía hasta la destinación acordada.- DAF (acordada en la frontera): el vendedor entregará la mercancía en la aduana para su exportación en el lugar y punto comprometido. El vendedor asume los riesgos de pérdida hasta el momento de la entrega.- DES (entregado en el barco): el vendedor escoge le barco, paga el flete y soporta los riesgos y gastos hasta destino. Los gastos de descarga los paga el comprador.- DEQ (entregado en el muelle): El vendedor pone a disposición del comprador la mercadería sobre el muelle en el puerto de destino acordado y la despacha en la aduana para la importación. El vendedor tiene que asumir todos los riesgos y gastos hasta aquel punto, incluidos también los de descarga.- DDU (entrega con derechos no pagados): El vendedor entrega la mercancía cuando la pone a disposición del comprador en el lugar acordado del país de importación. El vendedor tiene que asumir todos los riesgos y gastos hasta aquel punto, incluido también los derechos y impuestos exigidos por la exportación.- DDP (entregado con derechos pagados): El vendedor tiene las mismas obligaciones que en el DDU, pero además tiene que pagar los derechos de la importación de la mercadería. Supone la mayor obligación y riesgo para el vendedor dentro de los Incoterms.En caso que sea necesario, el vendedor y el comprador pueden ponerse de acuerdo para modificar el significado de un término y añadir las expresiones para aumentar o reducir sus obligaciones.LISTA DE CONTENIDO (PACKING LIST)Es un documento emitido por el exportador para facilitar las funciones de manipulación de la mercancía, en la que se detalla la mercancía enviada en cada paquete (peso, dimensión, etc.). Es un documento que acompaña la factura comercial.2.10 DOCUMENTOS DE TRANSPORTE2.10.1 TRANSPORTE MARÍTIMOLa documentación necesaria para efectuar una operación de exportación es la siguiente:· Recibo de abordo: es un recibo provisional que demuestra que el cargador ha efectuado el embarque de las mercancías.· Lista de embarque: lista completa del número de paquetes y de su contenido. Sirve para simplificar el trabajo de los inspectores de aduanas.· Póliza de flete: recoge las condiciones en que se establece el contrato de transporte. Es importante cuando se contrata un barco por un tiempo o por una serie de servicios determinados. No se acostumbra a utilizar en el transporte de mercaderías en régimen normal.· Conocimiento de embarque: es un documento con diversas funciones:- Es un recibo de las mercancías para la compañía de transporte.- Es un título de propiedad transmisible de la mercadería, que permite a quien lo tenga reclamar la entrega.- Es la prueba del contrato marítimo suscrito por el transportista donde se fijan las condiciones en que se realizaran.Tramitación y más información:Los consignatarios de barcos en el puerto.2.10.2 TRANSPORTE TERRESTREA. TRANSPORTE POR CARRETERALa documentación necesaria para efectuar una operación de exportación es:· Carnet TIR (ver Pág.. 13).· Carta de porte para el transporte por carretera: sirve de prueba del contrato de transporte y recibo de las mercancías, pero no supone la propiedad.Cuando sea un transporte intracomunitario, la documentación necesaria es:· T1: para el movimiento de mercaderías de países terceros que no hayan sido importadas en la Unión Europea. Con este documento el transportista garantiza delante de las aduanas el pago de los aranceles y del IVA de la importación.· T2: para el movimiento de mercancías comunitarias. · T2L: para el movimiento de mercancías comunitarias por avión o carretera entre países vecinos.Tramitación y más información:En las compañías de transporte internacionalB. TRANSPORTE FERROVIARIOLa documentación necesaria para efectuar una operación de exportación es:· Carta de porte o talón de ferrocarril: hay que indicar el nombre del destinatario y el lugar de entrega.· Carnet TIF (ver Pág. 13).2.10.3 TRANSPORTE AEREOEn el caso de una operación de exportación, hay que presentar la carta de porte aéreo o AWB. Es un documento:- No negociable (no se puede comprar ni vender).- Constituye una prueba documental del contrato de transporte.- Sirve como a recibo de las mercancías por parte del transportista.- Contiene las instrucciones de como hacer el transporte, manipulación y entrega de las mercancías.- Sustituye la factura del flete.- Es una prueba de la recepción de las mercancías.- Sustituye la declaración de valor de aduana.- Es un certificado de seguro.Además se tienen que pagar les tarifas de carga aérea y los fletes fijados.Más información y tramitación:En las compañías aéreas y en la Asociación Internacional de Transporte Aéreo (IATA).2.10.4 TRANSPORTE MULTIMODALEs aquel transporte de mercancías que se caracteriza por utilizar más de un medio de transporte. La documentación necesaria es:- El documento de transporte: demuestra que se ha hecho el contrato. Puede ser negociable o no y puede ser sustituido por mensajes de intercambio electrónico de datos.- FCR: se utiliza tanto para el transporte nacional como para el internacional. Es el resguardo de agentes transitarios.- FBL: para el transporte básicamente marítimo y también para el transporte terrestre.2.10.5 OTROS DOCUMENTOS· Título de transporte.· Formulario de correo: documento que formaliza el contrato de transporte postal.· Certificado de depósito en caso de existir depósito previo.Tramitación:Los consignatarios de barcos, los transportistas internacionales y en las agencias de carga aérea.3 SEGUROS3.1 SEGURO DE CRÉDITO A LA EXPORTACIÓNEste seguro cubre una serie de riesgos que en la mayoría de los casos son imprevisibles por parte del exportador. Básicamente son:- Riesgo comercial: el impago por parte del comprador, etc.- Riesgo político: decisiones gubernamentales que impiden el cumplimiento del contrato, etc. - Riesgo extraordinario: guerras, catástrofes, etc.En España, el seguro de crédito se puede contratar a la Compañía Española de Seguros de Crédito a la Exportación o mediante cualquier otra entidad de seguros de crédito.Tramitación y más información:Compañía Española de Seguros de Crédito (CESCE)3.2 SEGURO DE TRANSPORTECubre el riesgo del transporte de la mercancía; hay que tramitarlo en las compañías de seguros de transporte.3.3 OTROSSeguros de responsabilidad civil: es necesaria cuando se exporta un producto que pueda producir daños a terceros.
Los primeros pasos que tienen que realizar un exportador es darse de alta en el Registro de Exportadores y, una vez iniciada la actividad, presentar la declaración censal de inicio de operaciones. Son trámites puramente burocráticos, pero necesarios, ya que el primer es requisito indispensable si se quiere exigir, más adelante el derecho de la devolución del IVA, y el segundo se exige para cualquier modificación en la actividad exportadora o en el cese, si se da el caso.Para obtener la declaración censal y registrarse, se tiene que rellenar el impreso 036 y presentarlo en la Delegación de Hacienda correspondiente al domicilio fiscal de la empresa.Los impuestos que un exportador tiene que tener en cuenta son:
- El IVA.- Impuestos especiales.
- El IAE (impuesto sobre actividades económicas.
1.1 El IVA
El IVA es un tributo de carácter indirecto que recae sobre el consumo y que grava las entrega de bienes, las prestaciones de servicios realizados por empresas o profesionales y las importaciones de bienes y servicios.El ámbito de aplicación del impuesto queda limitado al territorio peninsular español y a las Islas Baleares. No quedan incluidas las Islas Canarias, Ceuta y Melilla.
Exenciones del IVA
Para que las mercancías españolas puedan acceder a mercados internacionales en las mismas condiciones que las procedentes de otros países se desgrava el IVA soportado en España.
Están exentas de IVA las siguientes operaciones:
a) Exportaciones intracomunitarias: para que una operación iniciada en un país miembro de la Comunidad y finalizada en otro país también miembro de la Comunidad no tribute dos veces, las entregas intracomunitarias están exentas.
· Las entregas de bienes transportados, por el vendedor, por el comprador o por un tercero en nombre de cualquiera de los anteriores a otro estado miembro, siempre que el comprador sea:- Un empresario o profesional identificado a efectos del IVA en otro estado miembro diferente a España.- Una persona jurídica que no actúa como empresario o profesional, pero que está identificada a efectos del IVA en otro estado miembro.
· Las entregas de medios de transporte nuevos realizados en las mismas condiciones que en el caso anterior, pero cuando el comprador sea una persona que tenga sus adquisiciones no sujetas al impuesto o tengan la condición de empresario o profesional.
· Las operaciones asimiladas a las entregas de bienes (como son las entregas realizadas en el marco de las relaciones diplomáticas, o dirigidas a organismos internacionales…).
b) Exportaciones al resto del mundo:
· Las entregas de bienes transportados fuera de la Unión Europea por el exportador o por un tercero en nombre y por cuenta del exportador.
· Las entregas de bienes transportados fuera de la Unión Europea por el comprador por un tercero en nombre y por cuenta del comprador.
· Las compras de los viajeros siempre que no sean una expedición comercial, que sean entregas documentadas con una factura con un importe superior a 90,15 €.
· Las compras efectuadas a tiendas libres de impuestos.
· Las prestaciones de servicios, incluidas las de transporte, cuando estén directamente relacionadas con la exportación de bienes fuera del territorio de la Unión Europea.
No están incluidas como prestaciones de servicios y, por lo tanto, tienen que pagar IVA:
- El transporte desde el lugar de la producción hasta el lugar donde será envasado.
- El servicio prestado por abogados de asesoramiento.
- La entrega de Embalajes.
· Las operaciones en zonas exentas depósitos francos y aduaneros
.Deducciones del IVA
Ya que las operaciones de exportación y las entregas intracomunitarias están exentas del pago del IVA, los sujetos pasivos pueden deducir de las cuotas del IVA repercutidas aquellas soportadas en les fases anteriores de producción y comercialización de los bienes objeto de estas operaciones.Se tienen que cumplir un conjunto de requisitos, como que:
· El sujeto pasivo tiene que haber presentado la declaración censal.
· Tiene que poseer un documento que justifique el derecho de deducción, como podría ser la factura original.
Devolución del IVA
Los sujetos pasivos que no hayan podido efectuar las deducciones porque eran superiores a las cuotas ameritadas, tienen derecho a solicitar la devolución del IVA deducible en la declaración-liquidación del periodo en que se ha soportado.La devolución del IVA se hace cada 31 de diciembre, a no ser que los exportadores se puedan acoger al régimen especial de devolución establecido en el artículo 116 de la ley del IVA.
Estos exportadores tienen derecho a hacer la declaración mensualmente en lugar de trimestralmente y a pedir la devolución del IVA también al final de cada mes. También se puede escoger entre la devolución cada final de año o la compensación con el resultado del año siguiente.Los sujetos que hayan realizado operaciones exentas en las exportaciones de bienes durante el año natural anterior o durante el año en curso con un valor superior a 120.202,4 € (20 millones de pesetas) también tienen derecho a la devolución al final de cada año, con el límite del 16% del importe total de las operaciones de este período. La tramitación se tiene que realizar en la administración o delegación de la Agencia Estatal de la Administración Tributaria correspondiente al domicilio fiscal de la empresa.
1.2 IMPUESTOS ESPECIALES
Los impuestos especiales son unos impuestos de tipo indirecto que recaen sobre el consumo de determinados bienes. Los principales impuestos especiales son los que graban las bebidas alcohólicas. Los hidrocarburos, el tabaco, la electricidad y determinados medios de transporte.
El pago del impuesto queda en suspensión cuando la salida del producto se destina
a:· Otras fábricas o depósitos, o a la exportación(fuera de la Unión Europea).· Fabricar productos no objetos de impuestos especiales destinados a la exportación.Los objetos sujetos del impuesto adquiridos por un particular de otro estado miembro no están sujetos al impuesto, siempre que se satisfaga en el país de adquisición o que su destino sea para uso personal.Tienen derecho a la devolución de este impuesto los exportadores:- De productos que en su producción hayan consumido otros sujetos de este impuesto( exceptuando los hidrocarburos). - Que ya hayan pagado este impuesto.- Los bienes no sujetos que contengan otros bienes sí sujetos al impuesto, siempre que estos últimos sea una proporción superior al 3% de su volumen o peso.
1.3 IMPUESTO SOBRE LAS ACTIVIDADES ECONÒMICAS
Este es un impuesto de tipo local que recae sobre las actividades profesionales y empresariales que tienen que satisfacer, de forma obligatoria, tanto las sociedades como los empresarios individuales.Si es la primera vez que se exporta conviene confirmar o ampliar la licencia fiscal en el epígrafe correspondiente a este impuesto. La tramitación se lleva a cabo en la Administración o Delegación de la Agencia de la Administración Tributaria.
2. TRÁMITES ADUANEROS
2.1 ARANCEL
El arancel es una medida economicofiscal de protección hacia el exterior. Está compuesto por dos partes: la nomenclatura arancelaria y la tarifa.
La nomenclatura arancelaria es la clasificación sistemática de las mercancías, que se realiza mediante el código establecido en el sistema armonizado y en la nomenclatura combinada.El sistema armonizado clasifica las mercancías en una serie de partidas y subpartidas y les asigna un código de cuatro cifras.La tarifa arancelaria es el gravamen o derecho que se aplica a las mercancías según sea su clasificación a través de la nomenclatura combinada.Hay otro instrumento que es el arancel integrado o TARIC que recoge las preferencias arancelarias, los contingentes, las restricciones cuantitativas y los códigos arancelarios que se aplican a las suspensiones temporales de los productos agrícolas e industriales. La exportación no está gravada con los derechos de aduana, ya que la Unión Europea quiere incentivarla. Sólo se grava en el caso que se pueda ocasionar un problema de abstención en el propio país.Para saber el arancel aplicable, el exportador se puede poner en contacto con el departamento aduanero de la Agencia Tributaria, enviando un fax con la descripción del producto que quien exportar. Allí le informaran del código arancelario al que pertenece el producto que exporta y la documentación que tiene que presentar.
2.2 DEUDA ADUANERA
La deuda aduanera es la obligación que tiene una persona de pagar los derechos de exportación aplicados a una determinada mercancía según las disposiciones comunitarias vigentes.La deuda aduanera nace de las siguientes operaciones:- Para la exportación fuera del territorio aduanero de la Unión Europea, con declaración de aduana (mediante el DUA, ver apartado 2.3), de las mercancías sujetas a derechos de exportación.- Cuando se exportan estas mercancías sin formalizar la declaración correspondiente.- Para la exportación de mercancía sujetas a derechos, se exportan a través de una normativa que las exime totalmente o parcialmente, pero no se cumplen todos los requisitos que implica la exención.La comunicación al deudor del importe de los derechos concretos implica la obligación de pago en el plazo de 10 días a partir de la comunicación. El plazo se puede prorrogar hasta a 30 días, condicionado a que haya el depósito de una garantía por parte del interesado.
2.3 DOCUMENTO ÚNICO ADMINISTRATIVO (DUA)
La exportación de mercancías es una de las actividades que los países quieren fomentar y es por eso que se lleva a cabo la supresión de algunos controles y documentos. Para la exportación de mercancías sólo se tiene que presentar el DUA.El DUA (documento único administrativo) es un documento administrativo necesario para el cumplimiento de las formalidades aduaneras requeridas para las operaciones de intercambio de mercancías. Por otra parte, sirve como base para la declaración tributaria y constituye un soporte de información.Con la eliminación de las fronteras dentro de la Unión Europea, el DUA sirve exclusivamente para la obtención de datos en los intercambios con países terceros de fuera de la Unión Europea.
Es necesario para las siguientes operaciones:1. Mercancías no comunitarias:- Para su despacho a la libre practica o consumo.- Para su inclusión cualquier otro régimen aduanero, incluido el de tránsito comunitario.- Para su reexportación fuera del territorio aduanero de la UE.2. Mercancías comunitarias- Para su exportación.- Para la circulación de mercancías por el territorio aduanero comunitario de mercancías previamente despachadas a la exportación en otro estado miembro diferente al de salida efectiva.3. Productos de la pesca de alta mar.4. Mercancías procedentes de cualquier lugar, que se despachan a la importación o exportación a Ceuta o Melilla.5. En otros casos en que la normativa comunitaria así lo disponga.
El DUA está compuesto por nueve ejemplares, los tres primeros tienen que rellenarse por un estado miembro de la expedición y los restantes por el país miembro de destinación. Para la exportación sólo son necesarios los siguientes:- Ejemplar número 1: para la aduana de expedición.- Ejemplar número 2: para la elaboración de la estadística exterior.- Ejemplar número 3: para el interesado, como prueba del despacho y salida o para pedir la salida por una aduana diferente a la del despacho Además, puede ser un justificante de la exportación a efectos del IVA o de impuestos especiales.- Ejemplar número 4: se presenta cuando es necesario justificar el carácter comunitario delante de las aduanas.- Ejemplar número 9: es el resguardo fiscal y se utiliza como autorización de salida de las mercancías. Juntamente con el DUA hace falta adjuntar:- Factura comercial de venta o adquisición (ver Pág.. 14).- Documento de transporte (ver Pág.. 16 y siguientes).- Certificado de recepción.- Origen de la mercancía (ver Pág.. 13).- Medidas específicas de política comercial (ver Pág.. 10).- Régimen fiscal: nacional (IVA e impuestos especiales) y comunitario (derechos de exportación).- Lista de contenido (ver Pág.. 16).- Otros documentos que solicite a la aduana.La declaración de despacho se tiene que presentar en la oficina de la aduana correspondiente al país donde se inicia la exportación. En el caso que la declaración esté incompleta se da el plazo de un mes para aportar los datos que faltan.La aduana puede permitir la presentación de declaraciones que no lleven adjuntos algunos de los documentos necesarios para su despacho. Hace falta justificar que los documentos existen y que no se han podido presentar por causas ajenas al solicitante.Con la supresión del DUA en las operaciones intracomunitarias, se ha creado el Intrastat (ver apartado 2.4), que tiene carácter obligatorio entre las personas físicas o jurídicas que realizan intercambios en la UE.2.4 INTRASTATEs un documento que sirve para obtener información sobre el comercio entre los países comunitarios. Cualquier persona jurídica o física residente en el país miembro de la expedición o país de llegada que intervenga en una operación comercial entre estados miembros, tiene que dar información estadística mediante declaraciones periódicas, que se pueden presentar en papel o de forma magnética y que se tienen que transmitir de forma obligatoria a la oficina del Intrastat.En función del valor de las expediciones efectuadas existen tres tipos de declaraciones:- Declaración detallada: cuando el volumen de comercio es superior a 96.161,14 €. Modelo N-E para las entregas.- Declaración simplificada: cuando el volumen de comercio es superior a 36.060,73 €, pero sin exceder de 96.038,41 €. Modelo S-E para entregas.- Declaración de IVA con efectos estadísticos: cuando el volumen de comercio sea inferior a 36.060,73 €. No existe declaración estadística individualizada y las obligaciones estadísticas es cumplen mediante la presentación de la declaración recapitularia necesaria a efectos de IVA intracomunitario (modelo 349). El período de referencia es mensual y las declaraciones se tienen que presentar la primera semana del mes siguiente.Para más información:Oficina información INTRASTAT.
2.5 RÈGIMEN ESPECIAL PARA DETERMINADAS MERCANCIAS
En la UE se ha creado una serie de normas especiales de aplicación para la exportación de determinados productos:
1. Material de defensa, productos y tecnología de doble uso: Hace falta la obtención de una autorización administrativa de exportación especial, así como la inscripción en el Registro Especial de Exportadores.Tramitación y más información:Subdirección General de Comercio Exterior de Material de Defensa y de Doble uso.
2. Sustancias catalogadas susceptibles de desvío:Para determinadas sustancies con las que se pueden fabricar drogas tóxicas, estupefacientes y productos psicotròpicos, es necesario un permiso de exportación especial. Este permiso se tiene que presentar al menos 15 días antes de la presentación del DUA.Las substancias químicas susceptibles de desviación están sujetas a la obtención de una licencia individual de exportación de sustancias químicas catalogadas.Tramitación y más información:Departamento de Aduanes e Impuestos Especiales de la Agencia Estatal de la Administración Tributaria
3. Productos psicotrópicos y estupefacientes:Las sustancias, medicamentos o preparaciones que es consideren estupefacientes están sometidos a autorización previa de la autoridad sanitaria y a control por parte de la aduana. Estas mercancías tienen que ser presentadas en la aduana junto con su permiso sanitario expedido por la dirección General de la salud Publica..Tramitación y más información:Dirección General de la Salud Pública
4. Productos químicos peligrosos:Teniendo en cuenta el peligro que supone su uso y transporte, existen determinadas medidas de control. En España es necesario comunicar a la Subdirección General de Sanidad Ambiental la voluntad de exportarlos a países terceros. Tramitación y más información:Subdirección General de Sanidad Ambiental
5. Bienes culturales:Para controlar las salidas del territorio español de bienes culturales calificados como bienes del patrimonio histórico español, es necesaria la autorización previa de la Dirección General de Bellas Artes.Tramitación y más información:Dirección General de Bellas Artes y Archivos (Ministerio de Educación y Cultura)Servicio de Gestión del Patrimonio Cultural (Departamento de Cultura)
2.6 LICÈNCIA A LA EXPORTACIÓN
Entre las mercancías sujetas a vigilancia administrativa previa, hay una serie de mercancías sometidas a restricciones nacionales (tienen que presentar la Autorización administrativa de exportación, ver apartado 2.7) y otras mercancías sometidas a restricciones comunitarias(tienen que presentar la licencia de exportación).La licencia de exportación es una autorización oficial para cubrir las exportaciones sujetas a este requisito. Es pueden estregar automáticamente a petición de un exportador o en forma de una autorización previa, en los casos en que se quiera limitar las exportaciones de determinadas mercancías. También será una autorización en los casos en que se tengan que respetar acuerdos bilaterales o multilaterales de comercio.Tramitación y más información:Secretaria General de Comercio Exterior
2.7 AUTORIZACIÓN ADMINISTRATIVA DE EXPORTACIÓN
Este documento es necesario para la exportación de algunas mercancías sometidas a algún tipo de restricción cuantitativa derivada de la aplicación de una política comunitaria o sometidas a un contingente cuantitativo anual.
Hay dos tipos de autorización administrativa:
- El documento utilizado para la exportación por operación (AAEO): Permite realizar una o diversas expediciones de la mercancía hasta una cantidad máxima previamente fijada, con destino a un único comprador y a través de una aduana específica.
- El documento global de exportación (AAGE): se utiliza para las exportaciones que por las características del mercado, o por el carácter no durador de la mercancía, tienen carácter continuo. Esta autorización permite un numero determinado de exportaciones a uno o diversos destinatarios mediante una o más aduanas y en un plazo concreto.En el caso de ser necesaria la autorización de forma inmediata, hace falta presentar una solicitud de autorización de despacho telegráfico de exportación. De esta forma, la Dirección General de Comercio Exterior realiza más rápidamente el estudio de la situación y lleva a cabo la declaración de aduana.Este documento se entrega de forma discrecional por la Dirección General de Comercio Exterior y su validez es de 6 meses.Tramitación y más información:Secretaria General de Comercio Exterior
2.8 CERTIFICADOS
En función del país de destinación y del producto exportado, se exigen una serie de documentos complementarios que tienen que acompañar la mercancía.CERTIFICADO DE EXPORTACIÓN (AGREX)La finalidad de este certificado es prefijar las restituciones a la exportación de determinados productos. El certificado autoriza y obliga a exportar durante un periodo de tiempo fijado la cantidad indicada del producto.El exportador tiene que depositar un aval para garantizar que se realizará la exportación. Puede ser en metálico, mediante garantía bancaria, y se publica en el Diario Oficial de la Comunidad Europea en euros o unidades. Hay que consultar el plazo de validez de este certificado ya que estaría en función del producto.Tramitación y más información:Dirección Territorial de Comercio
CUADERNOS ATA
Son documentos aduaneros internacionales que permiten la importación y la exportación temporal de mercancías sin pagar ni financiar derechos aduaneros. Sólo sirve para las siguientes mercancías:
- Instrumento0s profesionales: material publicitario y equipamiento que se usa para radio, televisión, prensa…
- Muestras con valor comercial para exhibir en otros países durante viajes, ferias o exposiciones.Estas mercancías se tienen que reimportar al país de origen en el plazo indicado (normalmente un año).Tramitación:Cámara Oficial de Comercio, Industria y Navegación
CERTIFICADO DE SANIDAD EXTERIOR
Es un documento exigido por el comprador para conocer las condiciones sanitarias del producto. Su expedición la realiza el Departamento de Sanidad.Mas información y tramitación:Departamento de Sanidad de la Generalitat de Cataluña
CERTIFICADO FITOSANITARIO
Es un documento de control y lucha contra las plagas. Determinados productos vegetales y otros objetos relacionados con ellos tienen que ir acompañados del su correspondiente pasaporte fitosanitario en el momento de la expedición.En el caso de ser exigido por el importador, el exportador lo puede obtener en el Departamento de Agricultura.Más información y tramitación:Departamento de Agricultura de la Generalitat de Cataluña
CERTIFICADO VETERINARIO
Este documento es necesario para evitar el riesgo de propagar enfermedades infecciosas y contagiosas existentes en la ganadería española. Tiene que acompañar a los animales vivos y a los productos de origen animal.Más información y tramitación:Departamento de Sanidad de la Generalitat de Cataluña
DOCUMENTO DE ACOMPAÑAMIENTO
Es un documento que tiene que acompañar los productos sujetos a impuestos especiales(tabaco, alcohol,..).En este documento se tienen que indicar los daros personales del expedidor y del destinatario junto con la cantidad , peso, etc., de las mercancías exportadas. Está compuesto de 4 ejemplares, cada uno de los cuales va dirigido al expedidor, destinatario, otro para devolver al expedidor junto con el visado de la autoridad fiscal del estado miembro de destino y el último para las autoridades del país de destino.Más información y tramitación:Departamento de Aduanas e Impuestos Especiales de la Agencia Estatal de la Administración Tributaria
DOCUMENTO DE ACOMPAÑAMIENTO VITIVINÍCOLA
Este documento tiene que acompañar los productos vitivinícolas durante su transporte y es necesario para certificar el origen y la cantidad de los productos exportados y para declarar el lugar de producción de las bebidas espirituosas.Tramitación y más información:Departamento de Agricultura de la Generalitat de Cataluña (para los intercambios comunitarios)Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación (para los intercambios extracomunitarios)Fondo Español de Garantía Agraria (FEGA)
CERTIFICADO CATICE
Es un certificado de control y de inspección oficial de una serie de productos alimentarios, incluidos en la Orden ministerial del 24 de febrero del 1995. Se exige como garantía del cumplimiento de las normas de calidad, de las especificaciones comerciales y de las relacionadas con los envases y embalajes.Más información y tramitación:Subdirección General de Inspección, Certificación y Asistencia Técnica (CATICE)
CERTIFICADO CITES
La Convención sobre el Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y Flora Silvestres persigue la regulación del comercio de animales, plantas salvajes y de los productos que se obtienen con ellos por salvaguardar ciertas especies en extinción.Para los productos objeto de este régimen, se exige un certificado de exportación visado por los Centros de Inspección de Comercio Exterior.Más información y tramitación:Subdirección General de Inspección, Certificación y Asistencia Técnica (CATICE)
CERTIFICADO DE ORIGEN
Es un documento que acredita al país de origen de la mercancía. Es expedido por les cámaras de comercio del país exportador, previo escrito de solicitud acompañado de la factura comercial. Se exige por motivos de política comercial y para así aplicar los derechos aduaneros que correspondan. Cuando la mercancía no está totalmente fabricada al país, cal especificar a los elementos extranjeros que porten incorporados, así con su origen.Tramitación y más información:Cámara Oficial de Comercio, Industria y Navegación
CERTIFICADO DE CIRCULACIÓN
Es el documento que sustituye el certificado de origen en los países de la Unión Europea para los intercambios con países con los que se mantienen acuerdos comerciales.Los documentos son l'EUR-1 o l'EUR-2 (en el caso d'expediciones postales o envíos inferiores a 2.820 €, 469.209 pesetas).Tramitación y más información:Departamento Aduanero y Impuestos Especiales de la Agencia Estatal de la Administración Tributaria
CERTIFICADO DE CALIDAD O DE PESO DEL PRODUCTO
Este documento está expedido para quien designe el comprador o para las agencias de aduana que le garantizan que el envío realizado por el vendedor se ajusta a lo contratado.
VISADO CONSULARA
solicitud del importador, hay que visar determinados documentos (factura comercial, certificado de origen…) en el consulado correspondiente.
CARNET TIR
Documento de transporte que da permiso al tránsito de mercancías a través de países no destinatarios de las mercancías, sin ser sometidas a revisiones por parte de las autoridades aduaneras. Se refiere a las mercancías transportadas en camiones herméticos y precintados y evita los múltiples controles y declaraciones aduaneras.Tramitación:Cámara Oficial de Comercio Industria y Navegación y el sindicato de transportes
CARNET TIF
Cumple la misma función que el carnet TIR pero para la circulación por ferrocarril entre los países europeos.Con el establecimiento del mercado único sólo será necesario utilizar el régimen TIF para el tráfico de mercancías con los países que no hayan firmado el acuerdo de tránsito comunitario (principalmente con los países de Europa del Este).
CARNET ECS
Es el documento que permite la circulación de muestras destinadas a feria y exposiciones. Sólo existe para algunos países en los que no se utiliza el cuaderno ATA(ver Pág. 11).
2.9 DOCUMENTOS COMERCIALES
FACTURA PROFORMA
Documento provisional expedido por un futuro exportador, para informar al comprador del precio de la mercancía y de las condiciones en que está dispuesto a hacer la venta. Si no se pacta nada, tiene una validez de tres meses, contados a partir de la notificación al comprador. Su efecto es informativo- Si el comprador la devuelve firmada, se convierte en una prefactura. La presentación de esta factura será necesaria para obtener permisos. FACTURA COMERCIALDocumento que extiende el vendedor, según su propio modelo, donde figura el precio de la mercancía y de las condiciones en las que está dispuesto a realizar la venta. En la mayoría de ocasiones, la factura comercial se utiliza como contrato de venta y forma del cobro de la operación; y por eso, tiene que ser firmado por las dos partes.
A. ELS INCOTERMS
Dentro del contrato se incluyen los Incoterms
: serie de términos que definen con claridad cuales son las obligaciones recíprocas entre compradores y vendedores dentro de un contrato internacional.
Los Incoterms vienen fijados por la Cámara de Comercio Internacional y regulan:
1. La distribución de documentos.
2. Las condiciones de entrega de la mercancía.3
. La distribución de costes de la operación.
4. La distribución de riesgos de la operación.
En cambio, no regulan la forma de pago de la operación ni la legislación aplicable a la operación. Se agrupan en cuatro categorías:
· Grup E (sortida): suposa el mínim d'obligacions per al venedor que posa la mercaderia a disposició del comprador en els seus propis locals.
EXW (a la sortida): l'obligació és lliurar la mercaderia en el local del venedor o en el lloc convingut sense despatxar-la a la duana, ni carregar-la en el vehicle de transport.El comprador és el que té totes les despeses i tots els riscos.
· Grup F (sense pagament del transport principal): el venedor no té les despeses ni els riscos del transport principal. Es lliuren les mercaderies segons les instruccions del venedor.
- FCA (franc a transportista).
- FAS (franc a moll): el venedor compleix amb la seva obligació de lliurament quan la mercaderia ha estat col·locada al costat del vaixell.Los gastos de transporte y seguro son por cuenta del comprador una vez se entrega la mercancía. Solo se utiliza en transporte marítimo.
- FOB (franco en el barco): La obligación del vendedor es la de entregar las mercancías cargadas en el barco. El vendedor se responsabiliza tanto de los trámites de aduana de exportación como de cargar las mercancías en el barco. El comprador paga el flete y el seguro.· Grupo C: el vendedor tiene que contratar el transporte, pero no asume el riesgo de pérdida de la mercadería ni los gastos adicionales debidos a hechos que hayan sucedido después de su carga y despacho.- CFR (coste y flete): el vendedor escoge el barco, paga los gastos y el flete necesario para hacer llegar la mercancía al puerto de destino acordado. El vendedor despacha la mercadería con los trámites aduaneros. Los riesgos pasan a ser des comprador desde que se pone la mercancía en el barco.- CIF (coste, seguro y flete): Las obligaciones del vendedor son las mismas que en el Incoterm CFR, pero además tiene que pagar el seguro de la mercancía durante el transporte.- CPT (puertos pagados hasta): el vendedor paga el flete de mercaderías hasta la destinación fijada. El vendedor es el encargado de los trámites aduaneros para la exportación. Los riesgos de pérdida pasan al comprador en el momento en que la mercancía es entregada al transportista.- CIP (puertos y seguros pagados hasta): el vendedor tiene las mismas obligaciones que en el Incoterm CPT, pero además tiene que pagar el seguro de l transporte de la mercancía.· Grupo D: supone el máximo de las obligaciones para el vendedor que tiene que soportar todos los gastos necesarios para llevar la mercancía hasta la destinación acordada.- DAF (acordada en la frontera): el vendedor entregará la mercancía en la aduana para su exportación en el lugar y punto comprometido. El vendedor asume los riesgos de pérdida hasta el momento de la entrega.- DES (entregado en el barco): el vendedor escoge le barco, paga el flete y soporta los riesgos y gastos hasta destino. Los gastos de descarga los paga el comprador.- DEQ (entregado en el muelle): El vendedor pone a disposición del comprador la mercadería sobre el muelle en el puerto de destino acordado y la despacha en la aduana para la importación. El vendedor tiene que asumir todos los riesgos y gastos hasta aquel punto, incluidos también los de descarga.- DDU (entrega con derechos no pagados): El vendedor entrega la mercancía cuando la pone a disposición del comprador en el lugar acordado del país de importación. El vendedor tiene que asumir todos los riesgos y gastos hasta aquel punto, incluido también los derechos y impuestos exigidos por la exportación.- DDP (entregado con derechos pagados): El vendedor tiene las mismas obligaciones que en el DDU, pero además tiene que pagar los derechos de la importación de la mercadería. Supone la mayor obligación y riesgo para el vendedor dentro de los Incoterms.En caso que sea necesario, el vendedor y el comprador pueden ponerse de acuerdo para modificar el significado de un término y añadir las expresiones para aumentar o reducir sus obligaciones.LISTA DE CONTENIDO (PACKING LIST)Es un documento emitido por el exportador para facilitar las funciones de manipulación de la mercancía, en la que se detalla la mercancía enviada en cada paquete (peso, dimensión, etc.). Es un documento que acompaña la factura comercial.2.10 DOCUMENTOS DE TRANSPORTE2.10.1 TRANSPORTE MARÍTIMOLa documentación necesaria para efectuar una operación de exportación es la siguiente:· Recibo de abordo: es un recibo provisional que demuestra que el cargador ha efectuado el embarque de las mercancías.· Lista de embarque: lista completa del número de paquetes y de su contenido. Sirve para simplificar el trabajo de los inspectores de aduanas.· Póliza de flete: recoge las condiciones en que se establece el contrato de transporte. Es importante cuando se contrata un barco por un tiempo o por una serie de servicios determinados. No se acostumbra a utilizar en el transporte de mercaderías en régimen normal.· Conocimiento de embarque: es un documento con diversas funciones:- Es un recibo de las mercancías para la compañía de transporte.- Es un título de propiedad transmisible de la mercadería, que permite a quien lo tenga reclamar la entrega.- Es la prueba del contrato marítimo suscrito por el transportista donde se fijan las condiciones en que se realizaran.Tramitación y más información:Los consignatarios de barcos en el puerto.2.10.2 TRANSPORTE TERRESTREA. TRANSPORTE POR CARRETERALa documentación necesaria para efectuar una operación de exportación es:· Carnet TIR (ver Pág.. 13).· Carta de porte para el transporte por carretera: sirve de prueba del contrato de transporte y recibo de las mercancías, pero no supone la propiedad.Cuando sea un transporte intracomunitario, la documentación necesaria es:· T1: para el movimiento de mercaderías de países terceros que no hayan sido importadas en la Unión Europea. Con este documento el transportista garantiza delante de las aduanas el pago de los aranceles y del IVA de la importación.· T2: para el movimiento de mercancías comunitarias. · T2L: para el movimiento de mercancías comunitarias por avión o carretera entre países vecinos.Tramitación y más información:En las compañías de transporte internacionalB. TRANSPORTE FERROVIARIOLa documentación necesaria para efectuar una operación de exportación es:· Carta de porte o talón de ferrocarril: hay que indicar el nombre del destinatario y el lugar de entrega.· Carnet TIF (ver Pág. 13).2.10.3 TRANSPORTE AEREOEn el caso de una operación de exportación, hay que presentar la carta de porte aéreo o AWB. Es un documento:- No negociable (no se puede comprar ni vender).- Constituye una prueba documental del contrato de transporte.- Sirve como a recibo de las mercancías por parte del transportista.- Contiene las instrucciones de como hacer el transporte, manipulación y entrega de las mercancías.- Sustituye la factura del flete.- Es una prueba de la recepción de las mercancías.- Sustituye la declaración de valor de aduana.- Es un certificado de seguro.Además se tienen que pagar les tarifas de carga aérea y los fletes fijados.Más información y tramitación:En las compañías aéreas y en la Asociación Internacional de Transporte Aéreo (IATA).2.10.4 TRANSPORTE MULTIMODALEs aquel transporte de mercancías que se caracteriza por utilizar más de un medio de transporte. La documentación necesaria es:- El documento de transporte: demuestra que se ha hecho el contrato. Puede ser negociable o no y puede ser sustituido por mensajes de intercambio electrónico de datos.- FCR: se utiliza tanto para el transporte nacional como para el internacional. Es el resguardo de agentes transitarios.- FBL: para el transporte básicamente marítimo y también para el transporte terrestre.2.10.5 OTROS DOCUMENTOS· Título de transporte.· Formulario de correo: documento que formaliza el contrato de transporte postal.· Certificado de depósito en caso de existir depósito previo.Tramitación:Los consignatarios de barcos, los transportistas internacionales y en las agencias de carga aérea.3 SEGUROS3.1 SEGURO DE CRÉDITO A LA EXPORTACIÓNEste seguro cubre una serie de riesgos que en la mayoría de los casos son imprevisibles por parte del exportador. Básicamente son:- Riesgo comercial: el impago por parte del comprador, etc.- Riesgo político: decisiones gubernamentales que impiden el cumplimiento del contrato, etc. - Riesgo extraordinario: guerras, catástrofes, etc.En España, el seguro de crédito se puede contratar a la Compañía Española de Seguros de Crédito a la Exportación o mediante cualquier otra entidad de seguros de crédito.Tramitación y más información:Compañía Española de Seguros de Crédito (CESCE)3.2 SEGURO DE TRANSPORTECubre el riesgo del transporte de la mercancía; hay que tramitarlo en las compañías de seguros de transporte.3.3 OTROSSeguros de responsabilidad civil: es necesaria cuando se exporta un producto que pueda producir daños a terceros.
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